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environment, in order to make stronger progress onclimate goals. 589 This entails broadening the perspective toconsider not only technical efficiency of a design, but alsowhat social and environmental goods were both consumedand produced.7.3.12. Climate changeA brief on adaptation and resilience classifies climatechange as a “super wicked problem” – resistant to theusual disciplinary approaches that have long been the basisfor policy making because its causes are complex andsubject to different interpretations according culturalvalues and beliefs. 590 Challenging the predominance of topdown policy, the brief makes the case for a resilienceapproach, characterized by organizations and institutionsthat can conceptualize, anticipate, and learn from changeover time. Another brief contains a critical appraisal ofcommunity-based adaptation – popular with donors –arguing that this approach ignores unequal access tolivelihood resources and land tenure, inequitableparticipation in decision-making processes, and politicaldisenfranchisement and elite capture. 591 In this case theconcerns raised also touch on other SDG targets, forinstance target 10.2 on empowerment and target 16.7 onparticipatory decision-making. A brief calling for a greaterpeer review capacity in African climate change scienceaddresses the science-policy interface and the productionof knowledge. 592 The brief notes that the dearth of peerreviewedscientific journals in Africa may have created theperception amongst African policymaking institutions thatWestern and Northern climate change science remainsdivorced from African realities and issues; the science maybe credible, but it lacks salience and legitimacy, which arekeys to its utilization by policy makers. Also addressingquestions of knowledge, a brief on the contribution ofanthropology (and social scientists more broadly) arguesthat efforts to examine and respond to the adverse impactsof human practice on nature and, conversely, ofenvironmental degradation on humanity, have to be amulti-disciplinary. 593 It concludes, among other things, thatsustainable human development should take into accountvariation in cultural values and knowledge around theworld, both as an asset and as a potential impediment tosustainability programmes.According to one brief, in 2007, before the global economicdownturn, international shipping is estimated to haveemitted 885 million tonnes of CO 2 , which represented 2.8per of the global emissions of CO 2 for that year. 594 At thesame time, shipping is the principal carrier of world trade,139carrying as much as 90 per cent by volume. The authorsstate that technical and operational measures couldincrease energy efficiency of ships by 25 to 75 per cent.7.3.13. OceansA brief on oceans reviews the science behind an emergingmarine ecosystem management approach – theimplementation of paired secure-access fisheries andconservation areas. 595 One of the findings in the brief isthat, contrary to expectations, restrictions on fishing do notnecessarily negatively affect the local economy. Instead,reforming fisheries in tandem with implementing no-takemarine reserves can improve both ecosystem health andeconomic well-being of coastal communities, one reasonbeing that fisheries output can improve due to the ‘spillingover’ of greater numbers of fish from inside marinereserves. A brief on coastal systems explores the impacts ofaquaculture, which is on the rise due to sharply decliningwild fisheries and increased consumption of fishproducts. 596 The brief states that it is estimated thatemissions from aquaculture could account for 5.72 per centof anthropogenic nitrous oxide emissions by 2030, if theindustry continues to increase at the present annualgrowth rate. A brief on micro-plastics - small pieces ofplastic found in the ocean, commonly defined as less than 5mm in diameter – outlines the science around this form ofmarine pollution, which threatens a range of marineorganisms. 597 According to the authors, one reason forconcern is that due to their small size micro-plastics tend toaccumulate persistent, bio-accumulating and toxiccontaminants such as PCBs, DDT and PBDEs. Among thepolicy options suggested in the brief are improvedunderstanding of sources of plastics and modelling of theirdistribution, as well as their inclusion in overall wastereduction strategies. Also addressing an emerging threat toocean ecosystems, a brief on ocean acidification notes that,while the chemistry of ocean acidification is generally wellunderstood from observations and models, its potentialconsequences on marine organisms are inherently morecomplicated. 598 While curbing CO 2 emissions is the onlyway to halt ocean acidification, the authors suggest thatactions can be taken, especially at local levels, to increaseecosystem resilience, including sustainable fisheriesmanagement practices and control of localized sources ofacidification from river runoff and pollutants such asfertilizers. Another brief outlines research that usedsatellite derived sea-surface temperatures to identify areaswhere coral reefs are likely to be best acclimated to stressand subjected to relatively mild acute bleaching events. 599