1HlG51J

While some efforts are undertaken to account forecosystem services 164 , the quantitative evaluation ormonetization of ecosystem services represents a challenge,especially with respect to cultural services. Given suchlimitations, qualitative ways of investigating the meaning,relevance and significance of ecosystem services should bepromoted. The ocean health index (OHI) 165 is one exampleof a possible translation of the provision of ecosystemservices into traceable and quantifiable indicators (see Box3-4).Box 3-4. The Ocean Health Index (OHI) 166The Ocean Health Index (OHI), developed by 65scientists/ocean experts and partners 167 , is a measure ofocean health that includes people as part of the oceanecosystem. It compares and combines all dimensions ofocean health -biological, physical, economic and social- inorder to generate a snapshot of the health of the oceans.The OHI evaluates the condition of marine ecosystemsaccording to 10 goals, which represent importantecological, social, and economic benefits that a healthyocean can provide: (1) Food Provision, (2) Artisanal FishingOpportunities, (3) Natural Products, (4) Carbon Storage, (5)Coastal Protection, (6) Sense of Place, (7) CoastalLivelihoods & Economies, (8) Tourism & Recreation, (9)Clean Waters and (10) Biodiversity. The Index score is theaverage of the 10 goal indices.Despite some evidence provided by projects and casestudies 168 , contributing experts point to a lack of scientificinformation on the potential contribution of improvementsin human well-being to reduced anthropogenic impacts onoceans, seas and marine resources. They suggest thatfurther research needs to be undertaken on the effects ofchanges in lifestyle (e.g., production, consumption, socialorganization) on the sustainability of marine resource use.A more systematic analysis of lessons-learned from projectsand initiatives could provide information and support thesharing of best practices.3.2. Impact of important classes of threats on theoceans, seas, marine resources and human wellbeingnexusOceans, seas and marine resources are increasinglythreatened, degraded or destroyed by human activities,reducing their ability to provide crucial ecosystemservices. 169 Important classes of threats identified bycontributing experts were climate change, marinepollution, unsustainable extraction of marine resources andphysical alterations and destruction of marine and coastalhabitats and landscapes.58One estimate found that at least 40% of the global oceansare heavily affected by human activities. 170 A recent globalanalysis of threats to marine biodiversity warns against apossible future marine mass extinction event driven byincreased human uses of the oceans. 171 Already today, 30%of the world's fish stocks are over-exploited, while morethan 50% are fully exploited. 172 Coastal habitats are underpressure, with approximately 20% of the world’s coral reefslost and another 20% degraded. Mangroves have beenreduced to between 30 to 50% of their historical cover,impacting biodiversity, habitat for fisheries, coastalprotection from severe weather and tide events and carbonsequestration potential. Some 30% of seagrass habitats areestimated to have disappeared since the late 1800. 173 Over80% of the world’s 232 marine eco-regions report thepresence of invasive species, which is considered thesecond most significant cause of biodiversity loss on aglobal scale. 174The deterioration of coastal and marine ecosystems andhabitats is negatively affecting human well-beingworldwide, with more severe and immediate impacts onthe vulnerable groups, including the poor, women,children, and indigenous peoples, due to their often highdependency on natural resources, lack of alternativeoptions, and inability to protect themselves from naturaldisasters and other threats. Coastal regions and SIDS areparticularly vulnerable to these challenges as oceans, seasand marine resources play a central role in their culture,while at the same time being tightly linked to theireconomies.Given the Earth’s limited natural resource base assuggested by the concept of “planetary boundaries” 175 , theforeseen global population growth to 9.6 billion people by2050 176 , the persistence of unsustainable consumption andproduction patterns in high-income countries, and theincreased economic “catching up” of developing countrieswith related increases in resource demands, are anticipatedto aggravate the situation if no adequate counter measuresare taken.Coastal regions are more densely populated and experiencehigher rates of population growth and urbanization thanthe hinterland. This trend is expected to continue. 177 Poorlyplanned and managed developments of coastal areas canhave detrimental impacts on local marine ecosystems andthe services they provide.Negative impacts of climate change and other threats arealready felt in coastal areas around the world and areexpected to increase. 178 More than 600 million people(around 10% of the current global population) live incoastal areas that are less than 10 meters above sea level.With regard to sea level rise, almost two-thirds of the