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While the scientific coverage of the different threats andtheir impacts varies, contributing experts strongly believethat oceans, seas and marine resources are severelyaffected, with negative implications for human well-being.They found that the scientific coverage of the impact ofmarine- and land-based human activities on oceans, seasand marine resources is often better documented than theimplications of the deterioration of oceans, seas andmarine resources for human well-being. There is atherefore a need to improve further the scientific coverageof socio-economic impacts of threats affecting the nexus.Different human activities and natural processes affectmarine and coastal ecosystems simultaneously, interactingand leading to cumulative effects. Contributing expertspoint out that a better understanding of cumulative andinteractive effects of different human activities is needed todevelop more effective integrated management and is vitalto properly evaluate the consequences of human activities,especially of emerging activities like geo-engineering orindustrial development in extreme areas (e.g. Arctic anddeep-water). According to the Assessment of Assessments,science has however limited ability to detect both indirectand cumulative effects as they can be non-linear andmanifest only after long time delays, which makes themvery difficult to predict. 188 3.3.Tableregionsaffectingcommunitiesunderlinesocietalapproaches.on conservationparticularsimultaneously.protectedcreationregulationsawareness-raisinginterventionsimpactsto humanlessonscouldand regionsIllustrative case studies – the need for an integratedapproach when dealing with the nexus3-4 contains a number of case studies illustrating howand countries have been addressing threatsthe nexus, with benefits for both humanand the environment (see also Annex I). Theythe connection between ecosystem integrity andwell-being, and the need for integratedThe majority of case studies reviewed focusesand protection measures targeted at athreat. Few aim to address several threatsApart from the creation of marineareas and other conservation measures, theof sustainable livelihoods, the use of policyas well as capacity-building, education andmeasures are some of the forms ofused. The quantitative evaluation of theof respective projects, in particular as they relatewell-being, is often not existent. Some of thelearned and best practices of existing case studiespossibly be useful for and adapted to other countriesof the world.Table 3-4. Selected regional and local case studies of addressing threats affecting the nexus*Case study Challenges faced Measures undertaken Impact on Oceans, Seasand Marine ResourcesRegional levelMarine litter,regional seas inEurope 189Marine ecosystemconservation:preserving thewealth of naturalcapital,Mediterraneanregion 190Economic, social andenvironmentalbenefits fromsustainableMortality of marinespecies (e.g., throughentanglement andingestion);loss of ecosystemfunctioning and services;marine habitatalteration, degradation,or destructionBiodiversity in regionseverely at risk: 19% ofall species threatenedwith extinction and 1 %already extinct atregional levelOver-exploitation of theregion’s oceanic fisheryresourcesPrevention throughawareness-raising/marketbasedinstruments (e.g.plastic bag reduction bybanning or taxing); RegionalAction Plan for theManagement of MarineLitter, including adequatewaste reducing/reusing/recycling measures;extended producerresponsibility; establishmentof voluntary agreements withretailers and supermarkets;clean-up of litterNetwork of Marine ProtectedAreas (170 MPAs; 2 UNESCOWorld Heritage Sites and 5Biosphere Reserves); MedPanas coordination frameworkfor conservation activities;changes of unsustainablefisheries practices (catchmonitoring etc.)Regional Strategic ActionProgramme (SAP) forInternational Waters ofPacific Islands to integrate64• Reduced risk ofenvironmental impactsdue to reduced marinelitter such as plasticitems (e.g. significantreduction of plastic bagusage)• Increase in diversity,abundance, and averagesize of exploited species• Ecosystems rebuilt• Preservation ofecological processes andcoastal and marinehabitat• Catches of bigeye,albacore, and yellow fintuna at or belowmaximum sustainableImplications forHuman well-being• Maintenance of fish catchand tourism revenue• Revenue through leviesand taxes• Reduced marine litterremoval activities anddamage to nauticalequipment• Support of economicallyvaluable activities (e.g.,tourism, small scalesustainable fisheries)• Maintenance ofassociated cultural values• Increase in fish catchesby a factor of 2• Number of peopleemployed by local