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fisheries particularly affected)• Loss of low-lying agricultural land orhomeland; decreased availability ofuseable/arable land• Decreased seed and feed availability foraquaculture as alternative livelihood -decreased productivity undermining foodsecurity• Reduced attractiveness of destination andquality of tourist experience –reduced sourcesof employment and revenue• Increase of vector-borne (e.g. throughmosquitoes and marine invertebrates) andwater borne diseases (contact withcontaminated water/food) in coastal areasSecuring ocean benefits forsociety in the face of climatechange.• WMO (2013): The GlobalClimate 2001-2010: A Decadeof Climate Extremes.• World Bank (2013). TurnDown the Heat: ClimateExtremes, Regional Impacts,and the Case for Resilience.• FAO/OECD (2012). Buildingresilience for adaptation toclimate change in theagriculture sector.Proceedings of a JointFAO/OECD Workshop.• Equity effects of climate change• Identification of high priority coastal ecosystems forprotection and restoration to reduce coastal communityvulnerability• Effect of on tourism sector in coastal areas• Assess vulnerability of coastal transport infrastructure,services and operations (ports and other assets) at locallevel• Conduct research on gender-specific impacts of climatechangeMarine pollution from marine and land-based sources (I)Impact on Oceans, Seas and Marine Resources Illustrative scientific reports* Further research areas suggested by contributing experts:• Creation of low oxygen “hypoxic” conditions,harmful algal blooms and dead zones andchanges of ecosystems due to eutrophication• UN World Ocean Assessment(2015) 182• Census of heavily populated areas with importantindustrial activities and fisheries; mapping of risk areaswhere industries that discharge materials are located• Decreased sea water quality• Accumulation of toxins in food web• Contamination with toxic chemicals causingillnesses or death of marine species• Spilled oils affecting animals and plants bothfrom internal exposure (ingestion orinhalation) and from external exposure (skinand eye irritation) (e.g. reducing ability tomaintain body temperatures)• Decline and loss of marine species• Degradation or destruction of marine andcoastal wildlife habitats, including nesting andspawning areas and nursery grounds• Potential effects on growth, reproduction andtrophic interactions, including effect ofhormones and pharmaceuticals in watershedson estuaries and coastal animal populations• Alien invasive species may outcompete localmarine species and threaten marine food web• UNEP (2014). Plastic Debris inthe Ocean.• Wright et al. (2013).Thephysical impacts ofmicroplastics on marineorganisms: a review.• Secretariat of CBD (2012).Scientific Synthesis of theImpacts of Underwater Noiseon Marine and CoastalBiodiversity and Habitats.• IUCN (2010). Marine Menace:Alien invasive species in themarine environment.• UNEP (2009). Marine Litter: AGlobal Challenge.• GESAMP (2009). Pollution inthe open oceans: a review ofassessments and relatedstudies.• Better understanding of ecology of pollution impacts andquantification of impacts, especially extrapolating fromindividual impacts to population and ecosystem impacts• Cumulative and/or simultaneous impact of multi-stressfactors on marine and coastal ecosystems• Link between marine coastal ecosystem change andoccurrence of harmful algae blooms and deadzones/hypoxia• Impact of contaminants of emerging concern (e.g. frommicro-plastics, pharmaceuticals, personal care products,ethylene dichloride)• Impact of nanomaterials on biota• Linking terrestrial and coastal/marine policies to addresspollution from land-based sources• Impacts of underwater noise• Depollution techniques and pollution preventivemeasures• Pathways and fate of contaminants (especially, POPS,heavy metals and microplastics) into marineenvironments• Ecological threshold of contaminants or water qualitystandards for ecosystem functioning and stability• Understanding the extent and effects of alien invasivespecies (lags behind that for terrestrial invasive species)• Economic assessment of impact of alien invasive specieson coastal and marine environment, including deep andopen oceans• Effectiveness of eradication programs for alien invasivespecies• Cascading effects of alien invasive species on marinefood web and ecosystem functioning and stability61