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generalized violence, violations of human rights or naturalor human-made disasters, and who have not crossed aninternationally recognized State border 335 .” Forms ofdisplacement vary and might change over time, withassociated monitoring challenges; although evacuation ismeant as a temporary measure, it might lead to longertermdisplacement and permanent relocation. Thecollection of data on displacement, in particular registrationof displaced persons and its accuracy, involves particularchallenges in urban and semi-urban locations that differfrom those in traditional camp settings 336 .Box 4-6. Combining outcome, output and input indicatorsDuring the OWG negotiations, Member States oftenemphasized the need to set outcome or impact-orientedtargets, although the 15-year timeframe of the SDGs poseschallenges for properly tracking progress in some countriesas stated above. In order to make sure that the countrieswhich will experience lesser exposure to hazards than usualduring the SDG monitoring timeframe, can track theirprogress in DRR, it will be necessary to assess also thedegree to which protection against risks is being provided.The 22 indicators of the HFA Monitor were input indicators,and it was noted that, due to the absence of consistentoutput indicators, it has been more difficult to measurehow much of the progress at the policy level has translatedinto improved outcomes on the ground 337 . For the post-2015 DRR agenda UNISDR has proposed the use ofoutcome indicators at global level combined with nationallevel input and output indicators 338 . In the SDG framework,one such example is target 11.b that aims at increasing thepercentage of cities and human settlements adopting andimplementing integrated policies and plans towardsresilience to disasters. Several different types of indicatorshave been proposed 339 340 for DRR such as the percentageof population with access to livelihood asset protectionmeasures, such as insurance and social safety nets, and thepercentage of buildings complying with hazard-resistantbuilding codes. Such indicators can be seen as proxies forcountries’ abilities to manage the underlying risk. A balanceamong suitable input, output and outcome indicatorsshould be taken into consideration in the selection of post-2015 agenda indicators at national level, to ensure thatindicators complement each other and contribute towardsfacilitating achievement of the proposed targets.The other question related to monitoring affected people iswhich methodology to use for data gathering. Whilepersuasive evidence to assess disaster-affected populationcan be obtained through sample surveys, particularly usingrepresentative sampling, this is not always the most timeefficientor resource effective method. New technologiesand ways to gather data, elaborated below, could suggestways to adjust the scope and definition of the target fornumber of affected people in the future.4.4. New solutions for measuringAs new technologies for data collection have becomeincreasingly available and user-friendly, the disaster riskreduction community has been exploring these channels tocomplement and even by-pass often arduous andexpensive traditional data collection methods. In particular,traditional and new data sources, including big data, couldbe brought together for better and faster data collection atseveral phases of the disaster cycle (for a detaileddiscussion on big data see Chapter 8). Big data and othernew ways of data collection can be used in the full disastermanagement cycle to guide preparedness and earlywarning, impact and response as well as mitigation, riskand vulnerability monitoring.Although all these new types of data have the potential tofulfil current data gaps, socio-economic, infrastructural,data management, and educational, barriers remain to beaddressed in many developing countries before big datacan be applied on a large scale to disaster monitoring.82