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since 1783," in Robin W. Winks, The Historiography of the British Empire-
Commonwealth (Durham: Duke University Press, 1966).
31. At least in this respect, a "pluralism" exists. For the social pluralism into which
contemporary democracies of mankind will dissolve, according to the prognosis of M. J.
Bonn in Die Krisis der europäischen Demokratie (1925), another, more effective form
already exists and has always existed.
32. The distinction (between democracy and liberalism) has been very successfully
brought out in an essay by Werner Becker ["Demokratie und Massenstaat"] in the
journal [Die] Schildgenossen (September 1925) [459–478]. It is based on an excellent
paper read at my politics seminar during the summer semester, 1925. Herman Hefele's
article ["Demokratie und Liberalismus"] in Hochland (November 1924) [34–43] also
emphasizes the distinction between liberalism and democracy. Nevertheless I maintain,
in contrast to Becker and Hefele, that the definition of democracy is an identity of
governed and governing.
33. [Tr.] Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Du contrat social (1762); English translation by
Maurice Cranston, The Social Contract (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1968). Cf. Schmitt's
review of C. E. Vaughn's Studies in the History of Political Philosophy before and after
Rousseau (London: Longmans, Green & Co., 1925) in the Deutsche Literatur-Zeitung
46 (1925), 2086–2090.
34. Alfred Weber, Die Krise des modernen Staatsgedankens in Europa (1925).
35. Carl Brinkmann, "Carl Schmitt's Politische Romantik," Archiv für Sozialwissenschaft
und Sozialpolitik 54 (1925), 533.
36. [Tr.] "Ce mot de Finance est un mot d'esclave; il est inconnu dans la cité." Du
contrat social, Bk. III, chap. 15, sect. 3.
37. "On doit concevoir . . . faute d'un interet commun qui unisse et identifie la regle du
juge avec celle de la partie." Du contrat social, Bk. II, chap. 4, sect. 7.
38. [Tr.] Weber, Krise des modernen Staatsgedankens.
39. [Tr.] "To the concept of God in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries belonged
the idea of the transcendence of God over the world, as the transcendence of the
sovereign over the state belonged to its state philosophy. In the nineteenth century
everything became increasingly dominated by conceptions of immanence. All the
identities that recur repeatedly in the political theory and jurisprudence of the nineteenth
century rest on such conceptions of immanence: the democratic thesis about the identity
of the governed and the governing; the organized state theory and its identity of the state
and sovereignty; the jurisprudence of Krabbe and its identification of sovereignty with
the positive law, and finally Kelsen's theory of the identity of the state with the system of
positive law" [Schmitt, Politische Theologie (Munich & Leipzig: Duncker & Humblot,
1922), 63]. On legal positivism see my introduction to this volume.
40. Pufendorf, De jure naturae et gentium (1672), Bk. VII, chap. 6, sect. 8. [A twovolume
edition of the original text and an English translation was published by the
Clarendon
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