Advances in E-learning-Experiences and Methodologies

The Role of Institutional Factors in the Formation of E-Learning Practices
the perceived usefulness of the technology, and
attitudes towards distance learning should be
included as important learning outcomes” (p.
1284). Waxman, Lin, and Michko (2003) suggest
measuring perceptions and attitudes as indicators
for affective outcomes and distinguish them
from both cognitive and behavioural outcomes.
In other studies, however, the perspectives of
the users are taken to represent factors that may
bear upon the consequent adoption and use of the
technology. For instance, student attitudes are
considered a prominent motivational factor in
learning; therefore, positive attitudes may often
accompany effective learning (Ayersman, 1996).
The first approach seems to conflate outcomes and
perceptions and in so doing blurs the distinction
between learning outcomes and their potential
cause. The second approach appears more coherent
in so far as this distinction is concerned. This
body of the literature will now be reviewed.
User attitudes are seen as influencing not only
the initial acceptance of IT but also the future
behaviour regarding the use of computers. Thus,
student attitudes towards technology form a
fundamental basis for both participation and subsequent
achievements in e-learning (Liaw, 2002;
Selwyn, 1999). In measuring and assessing attitudes,
different studies have applied the computer
attitude scale (CAS). The CAS (Selwyn, 1999),
based on Davis’ (1989) technology acceptance
model (TAM), consists of four subscales: anxiety
related to using computers, perceived control when
using a computer, perceived usefulness of using
the computer, and behavioural attitudes towards
using a computer. This model has been applied
in various studies of learning technology users
(e.g., Dusik, 1998; Selim, 2003). Mitra and Steffensmeier
(2000) examined pedagogic usefulness
of the computer by focusing on student attitudes.
Categories of attitude included: user comfort with
computers, apprehension regarding the use of
computers, the effect of online learning on communication
with instructors, general preferences
for e-learning, the effect of e-learning on workload
in learning, and whether learning is easier in
online environments. The results indicate that a
computer-enriched environment is positively correlated
with student attitudes toward computers in
general, their role in teaching and learning, and
their ability to facilitate communication.
Overall, research has reported that students
hold positive attitudes towards the application
of ICT in learning (Phipps & Motistis, 1999).
Favourable attitudes have been found across many
student populations, at all levels of education and
training, and across different cultures (Mitra,
1997, 2000; Sanders & Morrison-Shetlar, 2001;
Selwyn, 1999). Previous research has highlighted a
range of factors influencing user attitudes towards
computers and e-learning. Personal factors affecting
attitudes such as self-efficacy (Dusick, 1998;
Liaw, 2002) and demographic characteristics were
explored in relation to user attitudes towards LT
(Selwyn, 1999). Although overall attitudes were
found to be consistently favourable, research into
the factors influencing them has reported mixed
findings (Sanders & Morrison-Shetlar, 2001).
User perceptions regarding learning technology
have been explored in numerous studies.
Drawing on Rogers’ Diffusion of Innovation
Theory (Rogers, 1995), Omalley and McCraw
(1999) explored user perceived effectiveness of
online learning. In their analysis, facets of perceived
characteristics of e-learning included relative
advantage, course and student compatibility,
grades, and schedule. Research findings indicate
that students perceive that online learning has a
significant relative advantage compared to traditional
methods. These advantages include saving
them time, fitting in better with their schedules,
and enabling them to take more courses. However,
students do not believe that they learn more in
online learning courses. Interestingly, students
seem to be ambivalent when comparing online to
traditional methodologies. They prefer traditional
courses although they want more online courses
(Omalley & McCraw, 1999). Another study investigating
students’ perspectives on TML has