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Advances in E-learning-Experiences and Methodologies

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RAPAD<br />

example, whereas Laurillard has Marton <strong>and</strong><br />

Ramsden (1988) list<strong>in</strong>g “teach<strong>in</strong>g strategies” <strong>in</strong> the<br />

first edition (Laurillard, 1993, p. 82), <strong>in</strong> the second<br />

edition they list “implications for the design of a<br />

learn<strong>in</strong>g session” (Laurillard, 2002, p. 69). The<br />

subtitle of the second edition also shows a shift <strong>in</strong><br />

emphasis from the use of the phrase “educational<br />

technology” to “learn<strong>in</strong>g technologies.”<br />

These changes, while m<strong>in</strong>or <strong>in</strong> quotations<br />

from a given text, represent a more substantial<br />

shift <strong>in</strong> our th<strong>in</strong>k<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> the relationship between<br />

teach<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> learn<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong>, as a subtext, the role<br />

of learn<strong>in</strong>g technologies <strong>in</strong> that relationship. A<br />

further requirement is presented by the need<br />

to make sense of the plethora of terms used to<br />

describe different “types” of learn<strong>in</strong>g—distance<br />

learn<strong>in</strong>g, active learn<strong>in</strong>g, e-learn<strong>in</strong>g, resource<br />

based learn<strong>in</strong>g, student centred learn<strong>in</strong>g, self<br />

regulated learn<strong>in</strong>g, networked learn<strong>in</strong>g. Unless<br />

academics <strong>and</strong> university teachers have a clear<br />

appreciation of the form <strong>and</strong> content of the process<br />

that constitutes student learn<strong>in</strong>g, it will be<br />

difficult for them to make sense of the variety<br />

of approaches to learn<strong>in</strong>g confront<strong>in</strong>g them <strong>in</strong><br />

their professional life. However, Laurillard (1999,<br />

p. 113) did suggest that “it is difficult to f<strong>in</strong>d an<br />

academic with a theory of learn<strong>in</strong>g. Or even one<br />

who th<strong>in</strong>ks it is his job to have one.” This po<strong>in</strong>t<br />

<strong>and</strong> related issues were well explored <strong>in</strong> a paper<br />

from the same conference (Banathy, 1999). With<br />

reference to systems th<strong>in</strong>k<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> change <strong>in</strong><br />

higher education, this author used a hypothetical<br />

conversation between “a subject-matter professor<br />

<strong>and</strong> a systems th<strong>in</strong>ker” (Banathy, 1999, p.133).<br />

The paper, while illustrat<strong>in</strong>g Laurillard’s po<strong>in</strong>t,<br />

also provided an accessible systems based commentary<br />

<strong>and</strong> analysis on the differences between<br />

learn<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>struction focused approaches to<br />

higher education.<br />

In consider<strong>in</strong>g the role of learn<strong>in</strong>g technologies<br />

<strong>in</strong> the teach<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> learn<strong>in</strong>g relationship, Driscoll<br />

(2002) asserts that there are four basic tenets<br />

that need to be considered when we, as teachers,<br />

th<strong>in</strong>k about the use of technology to support our<br />

teach<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong>, by <strong>in</strong>ference, student learn<strong>in</strong>g.<br />

These tenets are that learn<strong>in</strong>g is active, social,<br />

reflective, <strong>and</strong> occurs <strong>in</strong> a context. This concurs<br />

with Goodyear (2001) who considers learn<strong>in</strong>g<br />

from a cognitive perspective through the lens of<br />

Shuell’s (1992) work. In this framework, learn<strong>in</strong>g<br />

can be conceptualised as passive reception,<br />

discovery, knowledge deficit <strong>and</strong> accrual, guided<br />

<strong>in</strong>struction, with this last form fitt<strong>in</strong>g “best with<br />

current scientific ideas about learn<strong>in</strong>g” (Goodyear,<br />

2001, p.71). With<strong>in</strong> this model, the significant<br />

elements of learn<strong>in</strong>g are then formulated as active,<br />

<strong>in</strong>dividual, cumulative, self-regulated, <strong>and</strong><br />

goal oriented.<br />

A mode of implementation for these approaches<br />

is put forward by Simons et al. (2000,<br />

p. 9), who suggest that “new <strong>in</strong>struction should be<br />

aim<strong>in</strong>g for the new outcomes of learn<strong>in</strong>g through<br />

the facilitation of the new learn<strong>in</strong>g processes<br />

<strong>and</strong> strategies <strong>in</strong> which a new balance between<br />

guided learn<strong>in</strong>g, experiential learn<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> action<br />

learn<strong>in</strong>g occurs.”<br />

A major consideration of these models <strong>and</strong><br />

perspectives is that each suggests that the design<br />

of systems for learn<strong>in</strong>g needs to be a systemic<br />

as well as systematic process. The systemic perspective<br />

then logically holds for the <strong>in</strong>dividual,<br />

group, or organisational level <strong>and</strong> takes the factors<br />

<strong>in</strong>to consideration. An example of elements<br />

of this systemic <strong>and</strong> systematic approach is more<br />

fully contextualised <strong>and</strong> presented by Goodyear<br />

(2002, p.11). It is a po<strong>in</strong>t that has been made quite<br />

strongly by several authors <strong>in</strong> recent times (Ford<br />

et al., 1996; Knight, 2001; Trowler, Saunders,<br />

& Knight, 2003; Weil, 1999) <strong>and</strong> has resonance<br />

with the writ<strong>in</strong>gs on both organisational <strong>and</strong><br />

educational change of Argyris <strong>and</strong> Schön (1996)<br />

<strong>and</strong> Checkl<strong>and</strong> (1990).<br />

Learn<strong>in</strong>g is complex<br />

In the case of learn<strong>in</strong>g itself, dictionaries often<br />

provide a simple def<strong>in</strong>ition of the phrase “to<br />

learn.” For example, the Shorter Oxford English

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