Outdoor Lighting and Crime - Amper

1999). Year-round summer-length duration of daily light exposure in humans and domestic
animals appears to lead to increased appetite, carbohydrate craving and fat storage in
preparation for the winter famine that never comes, increasingly leading to excess weight,
obesity and consequent obesity-related disorders and diseases (Wiley and Formby 2000).
Exposure to artificial light-at-night can reduce the amount of melatonin produced by the
pineal gland in mammals and other species. As melatonin is known to inhibit the growth of
cancer, researchers have hypothesised that night shift workers should therefore show higher
rates of cancer incidence (NAPBC 1997). The results of three subsequent independent studies
support this hypothesis: statistically reliable associations exist between the incidence of breast
cancer and the extent of participation in night shift work (Schernhammer, Laden, Speizer,
Willett, Hunter, Kawachi and Colditz 2001; Davis, Mirick and Stevens 2001; Hansen
2001a,b). The increases found in risk of developing breast cancer were described as
‘moderate’ and ranged from 8% to 40% in the first study, up to 60% in the second study and
50% in the third study. The second study also indicated a trend for breast cancer incidence to
increase with illumination inside bedrooms at night as reported in personal interviews with
the subjects in the study. The results support the cancer avoidance strategy of reducing
artificial light exposure at night wherever practicable (eg Batt 2000).
Stray light inside bedrooms is known to give rise to sleep disturbance and sleep loss,
depending on circumstances. As little as 0.1 lux in the plane of bedroom windows from
outdoor lighting was reported as troublesome for some individuals in a German survey
(Hartmann, Schinke, Wehmeyer and Weske 1984), observed as so by the writer in the case of
a family member, and claimed to be so by contributors on Internet dark-sky discussion lists.
The vertical plane illuminance at the outside of apartment windows in cities and towns at
night can be as much as many thousands of times greater. Adverse consequences of affected
or lost sleep can include ill health, daytime sleepiness and fatigue. Inadequate sleep has
effects like those resulting from levels of blood alcohol that are illegal for drivers in many
countries. Consequently, it can seriously degrade performance on tasks such as operation of
industrial machinery and driving (eg Dawson and Reid 1997, Williamson and Feyer 2000).
Drowsiness, often a result of inadequate sleep, is a contributory factor in up to 20% of traffic
accidents (Stutts, Wilkins and Vaughn 1999).
6.1.5 Control of outdoor lighting and lighting waste
More details on the many other adverse environmental and biological effects of artificial
lighting can be found in Clark (2002a), LiteLynx (2003) and UWG (2002), for example. Van
den Berg (2000) typifies concerns now being raised in other countries about the adverse
effects of excessive outdoor light and its waste component. An increasing number of USA
states, 9 of the 20 regions in Italy, and the whole of Czechia already have outdoor lighting
control laws covering their whole jurisdiction (Di Sora 2000, Cinzano 2002c, Falchi 2002 and
Hollan 2002). Pressure for lighting controls is building in other parts of Europe, including
Germany (Hänel 2000), Croatia (Korlevic 2002), Slovenia (Mikuz 2002), Hungary (Kolláth
2002) and the UK (CPRE 2003).
Control of obtrusive lighting and lighting waste can be relatively simple and economical
(Pollard 1994, IDA IS12 1996, SA 1997, IESNA 1999, IDA IS152 1999, Paulin 2001). No
outdoor lighting fixture should be aimed near or above the horizontal. No part of the lamp,
light emitting face or lens of any fixture should be below the opaque rim, either intrinsically
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