Outdoor Lighting and Crime - Amper

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The homogeneity of the crime data is suspect. Much effort went into trying to assemble a data set with crime rates for areas that approximated the areas given for the DMSP data. This was possible to some extent with the London data which was available for individual boroughs, but less so or not at all for the other cities. Maps of the police districts used indicated that they sometimes extended from city centres or suburbs into semi-rural or rural areas. In the London case, it was found possible to get several values of the crime rate between 9% and 14.25% by choice of area covered, from the city centre and inner boroughs to the whole of greater London. These crime rates did not vary monotonically with the corresponding population. To avoid bias to the extent possible, the figures finally chosen for all cities were simply as given in the references. The year chosen, 2000, was apparently the earliest for which a ‘league table’ of crime in English cities had been published. 64 This is in marked contrast to the situation in the USA, where the FBI’s Uniform Crime Reports data for cities and counties have been publicly available for many years. As a check on sensitivity to the contribution from London, the top-right data point was removed temporarily. The slope reduced by 25% but the correlation coefficient increased slightly, from 0.763 to 0.766. The slope retained its statistical significance: t = 3.154, 7 df, p < 0.05. The result for English cities therefore appears to be robust, which is not to deny the desirability of better quality data for crime, and for years closer to 1997. Light loss measures for more cities and for other years would also be valuable. The present findings would appear to justify the publication of crime figures for areas matching those used in the satellite observations of light energy loss. A regression analysis was also done for crime plotted against light energy loss per person (figure not shown). The slope was –0.04, not significantly different from zero (t = 0.331, 8 df). Removing the London data point changed the slope to +0.03, again not statistically significant. The Scottish cities showed a distinct upward trend on this plot but three data points are still inadequate for a regression analysis. 64 It led to complaints of unfairness from cities with relatively small central populations. The crime rates were claimed to be exaggerated by crimes committed by some of the nightly influx of visitors. 75
Country TABLE 8. Crime Rate and Upward Light Energy Loss in UK Cities Population, thousands Crime Rate % Annual Upward Light Energy Loss per Unit Area, MW.h/km 2 76 Annual Light Energy Loss per Person, kW.h City Year England 1991 2000/1991 1997 Manchester 430 10.81 11.4 28.4 London 7 285 14.25 11.2 4.94 Liverpool Newcastle upon 1 404 10.45 10.8 3.92 Tyne 276 4.44 9.68 24.3 Birmingham 1 013 7.14 9.43 10.9 Bristol 402 7.43 8.90 6.11 Middlesbrough 146 6.92 8.89 31.0 Leicester 294 6.39 6.40 8.36 Southampton 216 4.64 5.08 9.07 Plymouth 253 4.42 5.07 5.57 1997/1991 Scotland Aberdeen City 211 13.29 6.94 8.38 Edinburgh, City of 453 11.48 6.90 6.79 Glasgow City 533 13.98 6.54 16.9 The city crime rates in England are for 2000 using 1991 population data (Povey and Cotton 2000; Povey et al. 2001, p 13 for London Metropolitan Police, others pp 16, 19). For cities in Scotland, the crime rate is for 2001 using 2000 population data (Scottish Executive 2002). Light energy losses are based on satellite data (Isobe and Hamamura 1998). The crime rate is plotted against light energy loss per unit area in Figure 13. 5.2.6 City crime and upward light energy loss comparisons, Australia The available data set for Australia is given in Table 9, again in descending order of light energy loss per unit area. Crime rate is plotted against light energy loss per unit area in Figure 14. The regression line indicates no apparent relationship between the variables. TABLE 9. Crime Rate and Upward Light Loss in Australian Cities, 2000, 2000-2001 or 2001
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OUTDOOR LIGHTING AND CRIME, PART 2:
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The new hypothesis suggests that pr
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ABBREVIATIONS, CONTRACTIONS AND GLO
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ns not significant NSW New South Wa
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4.2.2.1 A graphical approach.......
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9.12 SKYBEAMS AND LASER DISPLAYS...
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If there is some substance to the b
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2. GROWTH IN LIGHTING AND IN CRIME
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e at risk when community and enviro
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A decade of satellite measurements
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2000). Regardless, there are often
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Intent in two of the source documen
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Unlike the situation in England and
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proportional to the amount of outdo
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Zealand (Not shown in figures) Popu
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the crime is much less feared by mo
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“We are not aware of any school d
Page 35 and 36: The Auckland central business distr
Page 37 and 38: Italian regions and in Czechia will
Page 39 and 40: summer’s worst heat wave and in t
Page 41 and 42: For 1977-07-04: End of Civil Twilig
Page 43 and 44: which unreasonably disturbs the sle
Page 45 and 46: 4. MAKING SENSE OF THE EVIDENCE 4.1
Page 47 and 48: much as 60 % of the emitted light a
Page 49 and 50: Marchant (2003) pointed out that th
Page 51 and 52: level will be linked to clock time
Page 53 and 54: Curve E is the simplest form of var
Page 55 and 56: night, plus the relative change ove
Page 57 and 58: • spatial extent also ranging fro
Page 59 and 60: Crime tends to increase as a reacti
Page 61 and 62: Causal Variable TABLE 2. Apparent S
Page 63 and 64: unreliable, and funding for further
Page 65 and 66: What would be helpful now would be
Page 67 and 68: 5. THE HYPOTHESIS AND FURTHER EVIDE
Page 69 and 70: Isobe 2003) with the same observati
Page 71 and 72: TABLE 3. World Cities: Upward Light
Page 73 and 74: TDU = 0.15 S + 0.5 A + 0.1 V. The t
Page 75 and 76: necessary but not sufficient condit
Page 77 and 78: TABLE 6. Population, Crime and Upwa
Page 79 and 80: On the assumption that roads and pa
Page 81 and 82: eliably positive slope with data un
Page 83 and 84: 5.2.3.7 Summary and discussion of r
Page 85: eflectance have changed the relativ
Page 89 and 90: 5.3 DISCUSSION OF THE CRIME AND LIG
Page 91 and 92: eventually in overall crime rates i
Page 93 and 94: objectionably large reduction, part
Page 95 and 96: no reason to suppose that ambient l
Page 97 and 98: oads were lit adequately for pedest
Page 99 and 100: Because of concern about the upward
Page 101 and 102: that major cross streets occur at i
Page 103 and 104: Overall, the tests indicate that dr
Page 105 and 106: TABLE 11. Drugs Crime and Light at
Page 107 and 108: 6. ENVIRONMENTAL ASPECTS 6.1 ADVERS
Page 109 and 110: 1999). Year-round summer-length dur
Page 111 and 112: yet ratified under the Kyoto Protoc
Page 113 and 114: One further problem needs to be rai
Page 115 and 116: Even with adequate notice it might
Page 117 and 118: markedly greater if there is substa
Page 119 and 120: at night, not only dim light but lo
Page 121 and 122: A Technical Report on the topic (IL
Page 123 and 124: ambient light. Commercial competiti
Page 125 and 126: with lighting for an aging populati
Page 127 and 128: If excessive lighting and lighting
Page 129 and 130: outdoor use of searchlights, skybea
Page 131 and 132: If funds are available for crime pr
Page 133 and 134: the first place now have to accept
Page 135 and 136: installation and usage of artificia
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Section 5.2.2 needs to be replaced
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8.5 ANOTHER VIEW There is an extens
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9. CONCLUSIONS Crime appears to be
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There appears to be no compelling e
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account for the strong positive cor
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aimed lighting used for advertising
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10. RECOMMENDATIONS The following r
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c. Support competent investigations
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14. REFERENCES Notes following refe
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BJS (2002a) Key crime and justice f
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http://dipastro.pd.astro.it/cinzano
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Dawson, D. and Reid, K. (1997) Fati
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Fennelly, L. J. (1996) Security sur
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Harder, B. (2002) Deprived of darkn
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IDA IS35 (1997) Billboards. Informa
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Klein, A. G., Hall, D. K. and Nolin
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Martinez-Papponi, B. L. (2000) Scie
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NBI (2002) Integrated Energy System
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Pearce, F. (1995) Declaring a curfe
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in the Nurses’ Health Study. Jour
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UNESCAP (2002) Developments in the
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FIGURES FIGURE 1. SKYGLOW AND CRIME
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FIGURE 3. SKYGLOW AND CRIME IN USA
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PERCENT FIGURE 5. USA BURGLARIES BY
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UCR CRIME RATE % FIGURE 7. UCR CRIM
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FIGURE 9. UCR CRIME AND UPWARD LIGH
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FIGURE 11. CRIME RATE AND UPWARD LI
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FIGURE 13. CRIME AND UPWARD LIGHT E
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Log 10 (ILLUMINANCE, lux) FIGURE 15
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