Outdoor Lighting and Crime - Amper

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urglary. Any causal relationships between lighting and acquisitive crime could tend to be concealed by co-varying factors in this type of analysis. 55
5. THE HYPOTHESIS AND FURTHER EVIDENCE 5.1 LIGHTING CONSTRAINTS AND CRIME IN SAN DIEGO San Diego, CA, has had low-pressure sodium (LPS) as a large proportion of its outdoor lighting 54 for many years to try to minimise the adverse effect of its outdoor lighting waste 55 on the performance of the 5-metre (200-inch) Hale telescope on Palomar Mountain. Palomar and the Mount Laguna Observatory as well are both within 100 km of San Diego. Stray light from San Diego is the major source of artificial skyglow affecting the Hale telescope (Garstang 1989a). San Diego has been one of only a handful of places in California where light pollution, light trespass and glare have been addressed reasonably in the municipal code and in the county zoning ordinance, although over sixty other places in California are thinking about it (Skykeepers 2003). San Diego is about 130 km from Los Angeles, which has three times the population. Using FBI (1998) Uniform Crime Reports (UCR) data, San Diego has a crime rate that is lower than for Los Angeles (11% lower for 4.51% against 5.07% for the respective cities, or 9% lower for 3.95% against 4.33% for the respective Metropolitan Statistical Areas). The difference is much larger when account is taken of the threat posed by the various crimes, as in the Morgan Quitno crime scores mentioned in Section 3.2.6 above. San Diego is ranked 123 for crime safety on the Morgan Quitno (2000) list of 315 US cities with populations above 75 000. Los Angeles is ranked 222 (ie, less safe) on this same list. Differences in the Morgan Quitno scores and rankings are also in the direction expected on the basis of the new hypothesis, given that San Diego has had outdoor lighting constraints that have not been applied generally in Los Angeles. San Diego recently decided to replace most of its 50-W low-pressure sodium streetlights by brighter, less well-shielded and more energy-consuming 150-W high-pressure sodium lights, supposedly to make the place safer for pedestrians at night (WalkSanDiego 2002) as part of the city’s growth strategy. This change was applied to within 50 km (30 miles) of Palomar despite strenuous objections by environmentalists and professional and amateur astronomers (eg Johnson 2001). More recently, the change was extended to within 25 km (15 miles) of Palomar (Monteagudo, 2003). The change is likely to be good for business, considered in isolation. From Part 1, the change is also likely to be futile at best for direct crime deterrence at night and environmentally damaging. According to the new hypothesis, as San Diego’s lighting characteristics move towards parity with those of the more conventional lighting in 54 As LPS light is mostly confined to a narrow part of the visible spectrum, a narrow-band rejection filter at the telescope can diminish adverse effects of backscattered sodium light on image contrast. 55 No such consideration is mentioned in the description of the fitting of 895 QL induction light sources in the San Diego Gaslamp Quarter, the largest such installation in the USA (Philips no date). The unshielded diffusing-globe luminaires appear to emit more than half of the available light above the horizontal, wastage that is highly inappropriate anywhere outdoors, let alone in a ‘showcase’ example. 56
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OUTDOOR LIGHTING AND CRIME, PART 2:
Page 3 and 4:
The new hypothesis suggests that pr
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ABBREVIATIONS, CONTRACTIONS AND GLO
Page 7 and 8:
ns not significant NSW New South Wa
Page 9 and 10:
4.2.2.1 A graphical approach.......
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9.12 SKYBEAMS AND LASER DISPLAYS...
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If there is some substance to the b
Page 15 and 16: 2. GROWTH IN LIGHTING AND IN CRIME
Page 17 and 18: e at risk when community and enviro
Page 19 and 20: A decade of satellite measurements
Page 21 and 22: 2000). Regardless, there are often
Page 23 and 24: Intent in two of the source documen
Page 25 and 26: Unlike the situation in England and
Page 27 and 28: proportional to the amount of outdo
Page 29 and 30: Zealand (Not shown in figures) Popu
Page 31 and 32: the crime is much less feared by mo
Page 33 and 34: “We are not aware of any school d
Page 35 and 36: The Auckland central business distr
Page 37 and 38: Italian regions and in Czechia will
Page 39 and 40: summer’s worst heat wave and in t
Page 41 and 42: For 1977-07-04: End of Civil Twilig
Page 43 and 44: which unreasonably disturbs the sle
Page 45 and 46: 4. MAKING SENSE OF THE EVIDENCE 4.1
Page 47 and 48: much as 60 % of the emitted light a
Page 49 and 50: Marchant (2003) pointed out that th
Page 51 and 52: level will be linked to clock time
Page 53 and 54: Curve E is the simplest form of var
Page 55 and 56: night, plus the relative change ove
Page 57 and 58: • spatial extent also ranging fro
Page 59 and 60: Crime tends to increase as a reacti
Page 61 and 62: Causal Variable TABLE 2. Apparent S
Page 63 and 64: unreliable, and funding for further
Page 65: What would be helpful now would be
Page 69 and 70: Isobe 2003) with the same observati
Page 71 and 72: TABLE 3. World Cities: Upward Light
Page 73 and 74: TDU = 0.15 S + 0.5 A + 0.1 V. The t
Page 75 and 76: necessary but not sufficient condit
Page 77 and 78: TABLE 6. Population, Crime and Upwa
Page 79 and 80: On the assumption that roads and pa
Page 81 and 82: eliably positive slope with data un
Page 83 and 84: 5.2.3.7 Summary and discussion of r
Page 85 and 86: eflectance have changed the relativ
Page 87 and 88: Country TABLE 8. Crime Rate and Upw
Page 89 and 90: 5.3 DISCUSSION OF THE CRIME AND LIG
Page 91 and 92: eventually in overall crime rates i
Page 93 and 94: objectionably large reduction, part
Page 95 and 96: no reason to suppose that ambient l
Page 97 and 98: oads were lit adequately for pedest
Page 99 and 100: Because of concern about the upward
Page 101 and 102: that major cross streets occur at i
Page 103 and 104: Overall, the tests indicate that dr
Page 105 and 106: TABLE 11. Drugs Crime and Light at
Page 107 and 108: 6. ENVIRONMENTAL ASPECTS 6.1 ADVERS
Page 109 and 110: 1999). Year-round summer-length dur
Page 111 and 112: yet ratified under the Kyoto Protoc
Page 113 and 114: One further problem needs to be rai
Page 115 and 116: Even with adequate notice it might
Page 117 and 118:
markedly greater if there is substa
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at night, not only dim light but lo
Page 121 and 122:
A Technical Report on the topic (IL
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ambient light. Commercial competiti
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with lighting for an aging populati
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If excessive lighting and lighting
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outdoor use of searchlights, skybea
Page 131 and 132:
If funds are available for crime pr
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the first place now have to accept
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installation and usage of artificia
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Section 5.2.2 needs to be replaced
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8.5 ANOTHER VIEW There is an extens
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9. CONCLUSIONS Crime appears to be
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There appears to be no compelling e
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account for the strong positive cor
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aimed lighting used for advertising
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10. RECOMMENDATIONS The following r
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c. Support competent investigations
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14. REFERENCES Notes following refe
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BJS (2002a) Key crime and justice f
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http://dipastro.pd.astro.it/cinzano
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Dawson, D. and Reid, K. (1997) Fati
Page 161 and 162:
Fennelly, L. J. (1996) Security sur
Page 163 and 164:
Harder, B. (2002) Deprived of darkn
Page 165 and 166:
IDA IS35 (1997) Billboards. Informa
Page 167 and 168:
Klein, A. G., Hall, D. K. and Nolin
Page 169 and 170:
Martinez-Papponi, B. L. (2000) Scie
Page 171 and 172:
NBI (2002) Integrated Energy System
Page 173 and 174:
Pearce, F. (1995) Declaring a curfe
Page 175 and 176:
in the Nurses’ Health Study. Jour
Page 177 and 178:
UNESCAP (2002) Developments in the
Page 179 and 180:
FIGURES FIGURE 1. SKYGLOW AND CRIME
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FIGURE 3. SKYGLOW AND CRIME IN USA
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PERCENT FIGURE 5. USA BURGLARIES BY
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UCR CRIME RATE % FIGURE 7. UCR CRIM
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FIGURE 9. UCR CRIME AND UPWARD LIGH
Page 189 and 190:
FIGURE 11. CRIME RATE AND UPWARD LI
Page 191 and 192:
FIGURE 13. CRIME AND UPWARD LIGHT E
Page 193 and 194:
Log 10 (ILLUMINANCE, lux) FIGURE 15
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Outdoor Lighting and Crime - Amper

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