Outdoor Lighting and Crime - Amper

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owners at least might consider an imposition if they have to pay for it directly. As with government tax systems, non-compliers would need to face penalty likelihood sufficient to keep their numbers small. At larger scales, ground-level surveys would become increasingly unwieldy and costly. Remote sensing technology is better suited to regional and larger scales, and would appear to be the most practicable and economical method of monitoring compliance by individual towns, cities and states. ‘League tables’ like Table 6, and likewise compiled from airborne or satellite sensor data, could provide a reasonably equitable and relatively inexpensive method for larger-scale management by governments. The three lighting quantities for which controls have been proposed, here and elsewhere, are: • excessive outdoor ambient light at night as a crime promoter, health and safety issue and biodiversity problem, • excessive waste light travelling through and lighting up the atmosphere as an aesthetic, scientific and educational problem, and • excessive energy waste and greenhouse gases emissions associated with inefficient, wasteful and inappropriate use of lighting. There is no fixed physical relationship between the three quantities, and satellite data such as that from the DMSP OLS sensors are different again. Depending on the form of limit set, individual towns and cities could be disadvantaged or favoured to some extent by the sort of lighting they choose to operate. A government would need to be quite careful in how it framed such limits. A poor choice might wrongly favour reduced fear of crime over actual crime, say, or over energy efficiency. As an example, consider a town entirely lit by incandescent lamps and another of the same area lit to the same mean illuminance by mercury vapour lamps in the same kind of luminaires. A VNIR-type sensor in a satellite would find the town with incandescents much brighter. If a brightness cap applied, that town might be instructed to cut back regardless of any difference in the respective crime rates. If that town had full-cutoff fittings and the other used ‘flower pots’, however, the satellite might ‘see’ little difference. No change would be required, so the people of the second town would continue to suffer excessive glare and probably an unnecessarily high fear of crime. Some of these problems might be avoided by the use of spectroradiometric sensors or luminosity-corrected detectors in satellites. These already exist but other characteristics of the satellites could be unsuitable for city lights tasks. 7.7.8 CCTV as an alternative for crime deterrence The effectiveness of closed circuit television (CCTV) systems for crime prevention was examined in Part 1. Scientific studies generally indicate that CCTV is of quite limited value for crime deterrence. On average, closed circuit television (CCTV) systems deter only about 4% of crime (Welsh and Farrington 2002), but this result is from a meta-analysis and may need revision. Supplementary lighting is sometimes installed for the cameras. Ironically, such lighting may indirectly increase crime. This would confound evaluation of CCTV effectiveness. Media publicity is given to the occasional success of CCTV systems in the apprehension and prosecution of offenders, but the cost of installing and maintaining the cameras, and operating the monitoring service, generally seems rather high for the results they achieve. 119
If funds are available for crime prevention, it seems that expenditure would be easier to justify on reduction of lighting intensity, glare and spill, or on diversion to police resources, rather than on expanded or new CCTV systems. Where time-series photometric data are available before and after CCTV installation, there may be a case for funding some existing evaluations in reverse, with the cameras being removed as the treatment. Removal would help in counterbalancing the experiment as a whole. 120
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OUTDOOR LIGHTING AND CRIME, PART 2:
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The new hypothesis suggests that pr
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ABBREVIATIONS, CONTRACTIONS AND GLO
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ns not significant NSW New South Wa
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4.2.2.1 A graphical approach.......
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9.12 SKYBEAMS AND LASER DISPLAYS...
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If there is some substance to the b
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2. GROWTH IN LIGHTING AND IN CRIME
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e at risk when community and enviro
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A decade of satellite measurements
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2000). Regardless, there are often
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Intent in two of the source documen
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Unlike the situation in England and
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proportional to the amount of outdo
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Zealand (Not shown in figures) Popu
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the crime is much less feared by mo
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“We are not aware of any school d
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The Auckland central business distr
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Italian regions and in Czechia will
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summer’s worst heat wave and in t
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For 1977-07-04: End of Civil Twilig
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which unreasonably disturbs the sle
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4. MAKING SENSE OF THE EVIDENCE 4.1
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much as 60 % of the emitted light a
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Marchant (2003) pointed out that th
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level will be linked to clock time
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Curve E is the simplest form of var
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night, plus the relative change ove
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• spatial extent also ranging fro
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Crime tends to increase as a reacti
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Causal Variable TABLE 2. Apparent S
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unreliable, and funding for further
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What would be helpful now would be
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5. THE HYPOTHESIS AND FURTHER EVIDE
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Isobe 2003) with the same observati
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TABLE 3. World Cities: Upward Light
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TDU = 0.15 S + 0.5 A + 0.1 V. The t
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necessary but not sufficient condit
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TABLE 6. Population, Crime and Upwa
Page 79 and 80: On the assumption that roads and pa
Page 81 and 82: eliably positive slope with data un
Page 83 and 84: 5.2.3.7 Summary and discussion of r
Page 85 and 86: eflectance have changed the relativ
Page 87 and 88: Country TABLE 8. Crime Rate and Upw
Page 89 and 90: 5.3 DISCUSSION OF THE CRIME AND LIG
Page 91 and 92: eventually in overall crime rates i
Page 93 and 94: objectionably large reduction, part
Page 95 and 96: no reason to suppose that ambient l
Page 97 and 98: oads were lit adequately for pedest
Page 99 and 100: Because of concern about the upward
Page 101 and 102: that major cross streets occur at i
Page 103 and 104: Overall, the tests indicate that dr
Page 105 and 106: TABLE 11. Drugs Crime and Light at
Page 107 and 108: 6. ENVIRONMENTAL ASPECTS 6.1 ADVERS
Page 109 and 110: 1999). Year-round summer-length dur
Page 111 and 112: yet ratified under the Kyoto Protoc
Page 113 and 114: One further problem needs to be rai
Page 115 and 116: Even with adequate notice it might
Page 117 and 118: markedly greater if there is substa
Page 119 and 120: at night, not only dim light but lo
Page 121 and 122: A Technical Report on the topic (IL
Page 123 and 124: ambient light. Commercial competiti
Page 125 and 126: with lighting for an aging populati
Page 127 and 128: If excessive lighting and lighting
Page 129: outdoor use of searchlights, skybea
Page 133 and 134: the first place now have to accept
Page 135 and 136: installation and usage of artificia
Page 137 and 138: Section 5.2.2 needs to be replaced
Page 139 and 140: 8.5 ANOTHER VIEW There is an extens
Page 141 and 142: 9. CONCLUSIONS Crime appears to be
Page 143 and 144: There appears to be no compelling e
Page 145 and 146: account for the strong positive cor
Page 147 and 148: aimed lighting used for advertising
Page 149 and 150: 10. RECOMMENDATIONS The following r
Page 151 and 152: c. Support competent investigations
Page 153 and 154: 14. REFERENCES Notes following refe
Page 155 and 156: BJS (2002a) Key crime and justice f
Page 157 and 158: http://dipastro.pd.astro.it/cinzano
Page 159 and 160: Dawson, D. and Reid, K. (1997) Fati
Page 161 and 162: Fennelly, L. J. (1996) Security sur
Page 163 and 164: Harder, B. (2002) Deprived of darkn
Page 165 and 166: IDA IS35 (1997) Billboards. Informa
Page 167 and 168: Klein, A. G., Hall, D. K. and Nolin
Page 169 and 170: Martinez-Papponi, B. L. (2000) Scie
Page 171 and 172: NBI (2002) Integrated Energy System
Page 173 and 174: Pearce, F. (1995) Declaring a curfe
Page 175 and 176: in the Nurses’ Health Study. Jour
Page 177 and 178: UNESCAP (2002) Developments in the
Page 179 and 180: FIGURES FIGURE 1. SKYGLOW AND CRIME
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FIGURE 3. SKYGLOW AND CRIME IN USA
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PERCENT FIGURE 5. USA BURGLARIES BY
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UCR CRIME RATE % FIGURE 7. UCR CRIM
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FIGURE 9. UCR CRIME AND UPWARD LIGH
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FIGURE 11. CRIME RATE AND UPWARD LI
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FIGURE 13. CRIME AND UPWARD LIGHT E
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Log 10 (ILLUMINANCE, lux) FIGURE 15
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Outdoor Lighting and Crime - Amper

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