Outdoor Lighting and Crime - Amper

4.2.2.1 A graphical approach................................................................................... 39
4.2.2.2 Possible forms of crime and lighting curve.................................................. 40
4.2.2.3 The general form of lighting and crime curve.............................................. 42
4.2.2.4 Linking theory and observation.................................................................... 43
4.2.2.5 Practical issues ............................................................................................ 44
4.3 SPATIAL AND TEMPORAL RELATIONSHIPS................................................. 44
4.4 LIGHTING AND CRIME HYPOTHESIS.............................................................. 46
4.4.1 Possible processes and causality........................................................................ 46
4.4.2 Lighting, commerce and crime processes – a new hypothesis........................ 47
4.4.3 Discussion of the lighting, commerce and crime hypothesis .......................... 50
5. THE HYPOTHESIS AND FURTHER EVIDENCE ..................................................... 56
5.1 LIGHTING CONSTRAINTS AND CRIME IN SAN DIEGO .............................. 56
5.2 CRIME AND MEASURES OF CITY LIGHT........................................................ 57
5.2.1 Satellite measures of upward light energy losses at night .............................. 57
5.2.2 Upward light energy losses for various cities................................................... 59
5.2.3 City crime and upward light energy loss comparisons, USA......................... 64
5.2.3.1 UCR crime rate data and light energy loss per unit area............................ 64
5.2.3.2 Investigation of apparent outliers ................................................................ 66
5.2.3.3 Light-loss correction for snow cover ........................................................... 67
5.2.3.4 UCR crime rate data and light energy loss per person................................ 69
5.2.3.5 Morgan Quitno crime data plots.................................................................. 69
5.2.3.6 Is Tucson anomalous?.................................................................................. 71
5.2.3.7 Summary and discussion of results for USA cities....................................... 72
5.2.4 City crime and upward light energy loss comparisons, Canada.................... 73
5.2.5 City crime and upward light energy loss comparisons, UK........................... 74
5.2.6 City crime and upward light energy loss comparisons, Australia................. 76
5.3 DISCUSSION OF THE CRIME AND LIGHT ENERGY LOSS
CORRELATIONS ............................................................................................................ 78
5.4 CURVE E AND THE CRIME VERSUS LIGHT ENERGY LOSS GRAPHS .... 79
5.5 MISCELLANEOUS ASPECTS OF OUTDOOR LIGHTING AND CRIME ..... 82
5.5.1 Baltimore studies................................................................................................ 82
5.5.2 Displacement and diffusion ............................................................................... 82
5.5.3 Lighting hotspots................................................................................................ 83
5.5.4 Equitability and moderation in lighting resources usage............................... 85
5.6 SEEING MELBOURNE IN A DIFFERENT LIGHT............................................ 86
5.6.1 Railway stations.................................................................................................. 86
5.6.2 Light and crime in the inner city ...................................................................... 87
5.6.2.1 Growth in crime ........................................................................................... 87
5.6.2.2 Serious drugs crime...................................................................................... 89
5.6.3 Proliferation of floodlighting............................................................................. 94
5.7 SEEING SECURITY IN A DIFFERENT WAY..................................................... 95
6. ENVIRONMENTAL ASPECTS ..................................................................................... 96
6.1 ADVERSE EFFECTS OF ARTIFICIAL LIGHT AT NIGHT ............................. 96
6.1.1 Lighting and energy ........................................................................................... 96
6.1.2 Artificial skyglow................................................................................................ 97
6.1.3 Effects on plants and animals............................................................................ 97
6.1.4 Effects on health, sleep and safety .................................................................... 97
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