Outdoor Lighting and Crime - Amper

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convert 1 watt of electrical energy into 683 lumens of green light (555 nm), or a lesser number of lumens of white light, the amount depending on the spectral energy distribution. Actual lamps tend to be much less efficaceous than this in producing their visible light output. The actual electrical energy inputs required to produce the observed upward light losses are expected to be between about five and ten times greater than the energy values given by Isobe and Hamamura. 5.2.2 Upward light energy losses for various cities The upwardly radiated light from a city, town or other populated area includes a substantial component of unused waste light that is emitted above the horizontal directly from outdoor light sources. These sources include advertising signs, road signs, traffic signal lights, and vehicle lights. It is convenient to include here also the light radiated above the horizontal from external windows of internally illuminated buildings, although part of it is used waste, ie it has performed a useful function indoors. The balance consists of waste used light that has been reflected above the horizontal from the terrain and built environment. As a first approximation, the total light in space detected coming from a populated area is proportional to the total amount of outdoor lighting within the area. Obviously, factors such as presence and effectiveness of luminaire shielding, 57 extent of use and opacity of drapes and blinds at windows, and the mix of light-coloured concrete and blacktop road and path surfaces will affect the constant of proportionality. For the immediate purpose, accurate relative measures of upward light energy loss between cities appear to be a sufficient guide to the relative amounts of ambient artificial light available for human outdoor activities at night. The Isobe and Hamamura data appear to have an acceptable degree of internal consistency, although the authors warn of errors from sensor saturation by the bright centres of some cities. A related point is that the nominal surface resolution of the satellite OLS system, 2.8 km, is somewhat too large for accurate measures of the bright central lighting peaks of many cities (eg NASA 2000). These shortcomings in the data could result in local energy loss underestimation. Of the 153 cities listed, the ten cities with the largest amounts of upward light energy loss per square kilometre are shown in Table 3, along with the ten having the smallest amounts. The observed range in values is remarkable, even allowing for the effect of snow cover in inflating some of the values (discussed below). Note that a high or low ranking for light loss per unit area is not necessarily a good predictor of light loss per person. 57 Photometric measurements at and around observatories indicate that the proportion of fullcutoff luminaires to other types is of much greater importance in limiting the lateral spread of skyglow than is generally recognised by the lighting industry. This factor also affects the ratio of ambient artificial light at the ground to the artificial light detected by satellites. The convenience of temporarily ignoring this factor at this stage of the investigation is not in any way intended to soften the case for the complete elimination of any source of outdoor light with anything less than full-cutoff characteristics. 59
TABLE 3. World Cities: Upward Light Energy Losses and Population City, Country Population, thousands (Year) Annual Upward Light Energy Loss per Unit Area, MW.h/km 2 Annual Upward Light Energy Loss per Person, kW.h Ten highest light energy loss/km 2 : Trois Rivières, Canada 138 (2001) 205 53.4 Clermont-Ferrand, France 1 310 (1999) 87.0 4.45 Ciudad Juarez, Mexico 1 187 (2000) 74.2 13.1 Calgary, Canada 951 (2001) 43.8 87.7 Montreal, Canada 3 426 (2001) 34.4 40.6 Edmonton, Canada 938 (2001) 32.4 62.8 Toronto, Canada 4 683 (2001) 31.6 29.3 Minneapolis MN, USA 368 (1999) 28.2 332 Las Vegas NV, USA 715 (1999) 24.5 53.1 St Louis MO, USA 397 (1999) 22.9 234 Ten lowest light energy loss/km 2 : Konya, Turkey 743 (1999) 2.11 1.57 Kochi, Japan 331 (2000) 1.96 4.32 Gold Coast, Australia 404 (2001) 1.77 (1996) 4.26 Wellington, New Zealand. 167 (2001) 1.67 (1996) 7.19 Belfast, Northern Ireland 279 (1999) 1.52 4.52 Antalya, Turkey 603 (1999) 1.41 1.63 Christchurch, New Zealand. 324 (2001) 1.31 (1996) 5.19 Brasilia, Brazil 1 960 (2000) 1.19 3.27 Phnom Penh, Cambodia 920 (1994) 0.92 0.55 Pyongyang, North Korea 2 360 (1987) 0.11 0.0061 The light energy losses are based on measurements of 153 cities by satellite, in early 1997 unless otherwise indicated (Isobe and Hamamura 1998). Corrections to no-snow conditions are not made in this table. Populations for the years indicated are either from national statistical offices, Brinkoff (2002) or van der Heyden (2002). A problem with the Isobe and Hamamura data now becomes evident in relation to one of the cities in Table 3. Las Vegas, Nevada, is well known for its numerous intensely bright outdoor advertising lights, signs and laser displays (ILDA 2002). The scattered light dome above the city is growing rapidly and beginning to affect the formerly pristine night sky conditions over Death Valley National Park (Albers and Durisco 2002). “As seen from space, Las Vegas is the brightest city on earth [sic]” (Schweitzer and Schumann 1997). But Table 3 indicates differently: on a light per unit area basis, Trois Rivières in Canada is 8.4 times brighter than Las Vegas, which ranks only ninth in the Isobe and Hamamura list. Apart from the sensor 60
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OUTDOOR LIGHTING AND CRIME, PART 2:
Page 3 and 4:
The new hypothesis suggests that pr
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ABBREVIATIONS, CONTRACTIONS AND GLO
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ns not significant NSW New South Wa
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4.2.2.1 A graphical approach.......
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9.12 SKYBEAMS AND LASER DISPLAYS...
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If there is some substance to the b
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2. GROWTH IN LIGHTING AND IN CRIME
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e at risk when community and enviro
Page 19 and 20: A decade of satellite measurements
Page 21 and 22: 2000). Regardless, there are often
Page 23 and 24: Intent in two of the source documen
Page 25 and 26: Unlike the situation in England and
Page 27 and 28: proportional to the amount of outdo
Page 29 and 30: Zealand (Not shown in figures) Popu
Page 31 and 32: the crime is much less feared by mo
Page 33 and 34: “We are not aware of any school d
Page 35 and 36: The Auckland central business distr
Page 37 and 38: Italian regions and in Czechia will
Page 39 and 40: summer’s worst heat wave and in t
Page 41 and 42: For 1977-07-04: End of Civil Twilig
Page 43 and 44: which unreasonably disturbs the sle
Page 45 and 46: 4. MAKING SENSE OF THE EVIDENCE 4.1
Page 47 and 48: much as 60 % of the emitted light a
Page 49 and 50: Marchant (2003) pointed out that th
Page 51 and 52: level will be linked to clock time
Page 53 and 54: Curve E is the simplest form of var
Page 55 and 56: night, plus the relative change ove
Page 57 and 58: • spatial extent also ranging fro
Page 59 and 60: Crime tends to increase as a reacti
Page 61 and 62: Causal Variable TABLE 2. Apparent S
Page 63 and 64: unreliable, and funding for further
Page 65 and 66: What would be helpful now would be
Page 67 and 68: 5. THE HYPOTHESIS AND FURTHER EVIDE
Page 69: Isobe 2003) with the same observati
Page 73 and 74: TDU = 0.15 S + 0.5 A + 0.1 V. The t
Page 75 and 76: necessary but not sufficient condit
Page 77 and 78: TABLE 6. Population, Crime and Upwa
Page 79 and 80: On the assumption that roads and pa
Page 81 and 82: eliably positive slope with data un
Page 83 and 84: 5.2.3.7 Summary and discussion of r
Page 85 and 86: eflectance have changed the relativ
Page 87 and 88: Country TABLE 8. Crime Rate and Upw
Page 89 and 90: 5.3 DISCUSSION OF THE CRIME AND LIG
Page 91 and 92: eventually in overall crime rates i
Page 93 and 94: objectionably large reduction, part
Page 95 and 96: no reason to suppose that ambient l
Page 97 and 98: oads were lit adequately for pedest
Page 99 and 100: Because of concern about the upward
Page 101 and 102: that major cross streets occur at i
Page 103 and 104: Overall, the tests indicate that dr
Page 105 and 106: TABLE 11. Drugs Crime and Light at
Page 107 and 108: 6. ENVIRONMENTAL ASPECTS 6.1 ADVERS
Page 109 and 110: 1999). Year-round summer-length dur
Page 111 and 112: yet ratified under the Kyoto Protoc
Page 113 and 114: One further problem needs to be rai
Page 115 and 116: Even with adequate notice it might
Page 117 and 118: markedly greater if there is substa
Page 119 and 120: at night, not only dim light but lo
Page 121 and 122:
A Technical Report on the topic (IL
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ambient light. Commercial competiti
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with lighting for an aging populati
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If excessive lighting and lighting
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outdoor use of searchlights, skybea
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If funds are available for crime pr
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the first place now have to accept
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installation and usage of artificia
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Section 5.2.2 needs to be replaced
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8.5 ANOTHER VIEW There is an extens
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9. CONCLUSIONS Crime appears to be
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There appears to be no compelling e
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account for the strong positive cor
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aimed lighting used for advertising
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10. RECOMMENDATIONS The following r
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c. Support competent investigations
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14. REFERENCES Notes following refe
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BJS (2002a) Key crime and justice f
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http://dipastro.pd.astro.it/cinzano
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Dawson, D. and Reid, K. (1997) Fati
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Fennelly, L. J. (1996) Security sur
Page 163 and 164:
Harder, B. (2002) Deprived of darkn
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IDA IS35 (1997) Billboards. Informa
Page 167 and 168:
Klein, A. G., Hall, D. K. and Nolin
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Martinez-Papponi, B. L. (2000) Scie
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NBI (2002) Integrated Energy System
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Pearce, F. (1995) Declaring a curfe
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in the Nurses’ Health Study. Jour
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UNESCAP (2002) Developments in the
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FIGURES FIGURE 1. SKYGLOW AND CRIME
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FIGURE 3. SKYGLOW AND CRIME IN USA
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PERCENT FIGURE 5. USA BURGLARIES BY
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UCR CRIME RATE % FIGURE 7. UCR CRIM
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FIGURE 9. UCR CRIME AND UPWARD LIGH
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FIGURE 11. CRIME RATE AND UPWARD LI
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FIGURE 13. CRIME AND UPWARD LIGHT E
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Log 10 (ILLUMINANCE, lux) FIGURE 15
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