Space Security Index

More documents

Recommendations

Info

Space Security 2011 98 Commercial space eorts have the potential to increase the level of transnational cooperation and interdependence in the space sector, thereby enhancing transparency and condence among international partners. Additionally, the development of the space industry could inuence, and be inuenced by, international space governance. To thrive, sustainable commercial markets must have the freedom to innovate, but they also require a framework of laws and regulations on issues of property, standards, and liabilities. Issues of ownership and property may also pose a challenge to the growth of the industry. For example, while the non-appropriation clause of the Outer Space Treaty is generally understood to prohibit ownership claims in space, this clause also raises questions about the allocation and use of space resources, which are utilized by a variety of space actors, but are technically owned by no one. Growth in space commerce has already led to greater competition for scarce space resources such as orbital slots and radio frequencies. To date, the ITU and national regulators have been able to manage inter- and intra-industry tensions. However, strong demand for additional frequency allocations and demands of emerging nations for new orbital slots will provide new challenges for domestic and international regulators. e growing dependence of certain segments of the commercial space industry on military clients could also have an adverse impact on space security, by making commercial space assets the potential target of military attacks. Trend 5.1: The global commercial space industry continues to experience overall growth, but seeks creative solutions to oset probably future downturn Commercial space revenues have steadily increased since the mid-1990s, when the industry rst started to grow signicantly. e satellite industry is made up of four major segments: ground equipment, satellite services, launch industry, and satellite manufacturing, with satellite services accounting for approximately 60 per cent of total worldwide revenues. 4 Between 2009 and 2010, the ground equipment and launch industry segments remained steady with, respectively, 31 per cent and 3 per cent of total revenues. Satellite manufacturing decreased slightly in 2010 to 6 per cent from 8 per cent in the previous year; satellite services grew from 58 per cent to 60 per cent. 5 Growth in services such as telecommunications has been largely driven by commercial rather than government demand; this trend is mirrored in other sectors. e telecommunications industry has long been a driver of commercial uses of space. e rst commercial satellite was the Telstar-1, launched by NASA in July 1962 for telecommunications giant AT&T. 6 Satellite industry revenues were rst reported in 1978, when Communication Satellite Corporation claimed 1976 operating revenues of almost $154-million. 7 By 1980, it is estimated that the worldwide commercial space sector already accounted for revenues of $2.1-billion. 8 Individual consumers are becoming important stakeholders in space with their demand for telecommunications services, particularly Direct Broadcasting Services, but also global satellite positioning and commercial remote sensing images. Today’s space telecommunications sector emerged from what were previously government-operated bodies that were deregulated and privatized in the 1990s. For example, the International Maritime Satellite Organisation (Inmarsat) and International Telecommunications Satellite Organization (Intelsat) were privatized in 1999 and 2001,
espectively. 9 PanAmSat, New Skies, GE Americom, Loral Skynet, Eutelsat, Iridium, EchoStar, and Globalstar were some of the prominent companies to emerge during this time. Major companies today include SES Global, Intelsat, Eutelsat, Telesat, and Inmarsat. More satellite launches and a growing satellite services sector have a direct impact on the commercial manufacturing industry. Although satellite manufacturers continue to experience pressure to lower prices, strong demand for broadcasting, broadband, and mobile satellite services and a strong replacement market drive an increase in orders that is projected to continue. 10 Of the 110 payloads carried into orbit in 2010, 33 provide commercial services and the remaining 77 perform civil government, nonpro t, or military missions. 11 Figure 5.1: Commercial payloads launched by country in 2010 12 e shape of the commercial space industry is beginning to shift as it becomes more global. Although it is still dominated by Europe, Russia, and the U.S., countries including India and China are starting to become involved. Developing countries are the prime focus of these e orts. 13 India has been positioning itself to compete for a portion of the commercial launch service market by o ering lower-cost launches, 14 and it also intends to compete in the satellite manufacturing industry. 15 For the rst time in 2007, China both manufactured and launched a satellite for another country, Nigeria’s Nigcomsat-1. 16 Moreover, because it uses no U.S. components, China has marketed manufactured satellites as free of International Tra c in Arms Regulations (ITAR) restrictions, reportedly at prices below industry standard. 17 e 2000 downturn in the technology and communications sectors a ected the commercial space sector, reducing market take-up of satellite telephony and creating overcapacity in the launch sector. e number of commercial satellite launches dropped from a peak of 38 in 1999 to 16 in 2001. e sector has since recovered, with 33 global launches in 2010. 18 e commercial launch market continues to be dominated by Russia and Europe, followed by the U.S. Currently, satellite operators are tapping into the strong demand for new services to compensate for a possible decrease in new satellite orders, as described below. Commercial Space 99
Page 1:
SPACE SECURITY 2011 www.spacesecuri
Page 4 and 5:
Library and Archives Canada Catalog
Page 7 and 8:
PAGE 1 Acronyms PAGE 7 Introduction
Page 9:
PAGE 149 Chapter 8 - Space Systems
Page 12 and 13:
Space Security 2011 2 EHF Extremely
Page 14 and 15:
Space Security 2011 4 NTM National
Page 17 and 18:
Space Security 2011 is the eighth a
Page 19 and 20:
of the three preceding years, in al
Page 21 and 22:
The Space Environment TREND 1.1: Am
Page 23 and 24:
2010 Developments: • Internationa
Page 25 and 26:
2010 Developments: • Shift in U.S
Page 27 and 28:
Civil Space Programs TREND 4.1: Gro
Page 29 and 30:
2010 Developments: • Satellite na
Page 31 and 32:
eyond the ISS partners, without sac
Page 33 and 34:
2010 Developments: • Japan launch
Page 35 and 36:
Space Systems Negation TREND 8.1: I
Page 37 and 38:
The Space Environment is chapter as
Page 39 and 40:
of which fewer than 5 per cent are
Page 41 and 42:
Table 1.3 below lists the Top 10 br
Page 43 and 44:
Figure 1.5: Total cataloged on-orbi
Page 45 and 46:
(German Aerospace Center), ESA, ISR
Page 47 and 48:
approximately six weeks later. NASA
Page 49 and 50:
Originally adopted in 1994, the ITU
Page 51 and 52:
etransmits the programming to cable
Page 53 and 54:
order of years or decades, there ar
Page 55 and 56:
help increase the transparency and
Page 57 and 58: e 1,100-kg Block 10 satellite conta
Page 59 and 60: Trend 2.2: Global SSA capabilities
Page 61 and 62: Space surveillance is an area of gr
Page 63 and 64: Space Security Impact e European SS
Page 65 and 66: 2010 Development U.S. government co
Page 67 and 68: states can peacefully discuss, for
Page 69 and 70: Registration Convention The Convent
Page 71 and 72: PAROS resolution Since 1981 the UNG
Page 73 and 74: Space Security Proposals A number o
Page 75 and 76: threat posed to the access to, and
Page 77 and 78: on questions and issues put before
Page 79 and 80: an impasse. Despite the difficultie
Page 81 and 82: 2010 Development Africa considers t
Page 83 and 84: e EU/ESA European Space Policy adop
Page 85 and 86: 2010 Development U.S. export reform
Page 87 and 88: space orbits and place great strain
Page 89 and 90: 2010 Development Various countries
Page 91 and 92: Table 4.4: The 2010 space launch sc
Page 93 and 94: itself, major contractors such as B
Page 95 and 96: 1. Transporting astronauts to LEO c
Page 97 and 98: 2010 Development Mix of successes a
Page 99 and 100: Figure 4.7: NASA 2006-2010 budget (
Page 101 and 102: Table 4.9: Flights to the Internati
Page 103 and 104: GPS military applications include n
Page 105 and 106: distribution system that provides a
Page 107: Commercial Space is chapter assesse
Page 111 and 112: in two ways: 1) by amending spectru
Page 113 and 114: comprised of Boeing (U.S.), Aker Kv
Page 115 and 116: of the rst two space tourists purc
Page 117 and 118: At the Spaceport America runway ded
Page 119 and 120: the U.S. National Geospatial-Intell
Page 121 and 122: esources to address growing space s
Page 123 and 124: satellite technology is that the sy
Page 125 and 126: Space Support for Terrestrial Milit
Page 135 and 136: Figure 6.4: Russian dedicated milit
Page 143 and 144: 2010 Development Space Support for
Page 147 and 148: Space Systems Resiliency is chapter
Page 149 and 150: Responding to such concerns, the U.
Page 151 and 152: Space Security Impact e establishme
Page 153 and 154: industry rsts — notably, the rst
Page 155 and 156: involved; modest shields in GEO can
Page 157 and 158: X-37A (NASA/DARPA). 77 A successor
Page 159 and 160:
Space Systems Negation is chapter a
Page 161 and 162:
equipment during Operation Iraqi Fr
Page 163 and 164:
satellites in LEO. 43 Japan is an i
Page 165 and 166:
under the Advanced Weapons Technolo
Page 167 and 168:
Table 8.2: History of ground-based
Page 169 and 170:
e MDA Near-Field Infrared Experimen
Page 171 and 172:
Space Security Working Group Meetin
Page 173 and 174:
Types of Earth Orbits* Low Earth Or
Page 175 and 176:
Article II Outer space, including t
Page 177 and 178:
Article XI In order to promote inte
Page 179 and 180:
Spacecraft Launched in 2010 COSPAR
Page 181 and 182:
COSPAR Launch Date 2010- 041B 2010-
Page 183 and 184:
Chapter One Endnotes 1 D. Wright,
Page 185 and 186:
51 Council of the European Union, d
Page 187 and 188:
97 Joel D. Scheraga, “Establishin
Page 189 and 190:
21 Vandenberg Air Force Base, “Va
Page 191 and 192:
69 Ibid. 70 Ibid. 71 European Space
Page 193 and 194:
13 United Nations Oce for Outer Spa
Page 195 and 196:
54 William J. Broad and Kenneth Cha
Page 197 and 198:
93 Saira Abbasi, “FMCT: An Unnish
Page 199 and 200:
135 K.K. Nair, Space, the Frontiers
Page 201 and 202:
3 Data from Gunter Krebs, Gunter’
Page 203 and 204:
50 Antonio Regalado, “Mexico Gets
Page 205 and 206:
88 Frank Morring Jr., “India Gear
Page 207 and 208:
131 Prime Minister of Russia. “Pr
Page 209 and 210:
170 e Voice of Russia, “Russia, K
Page 211 and 212:
generation GPS bird,” Russian Spa
Page 213 and 214:
13 Jim Yardley, “Snubbed by U.S.,
Page 215 and 216:
55 Daniel J. Marcus, “Commerce Pr
Page 217 and 218:
99 Ibid. 100 Space News, “Virgin
Page 219 and 220:
136 Richard DalBello, interview wit
Page 221 and 222:
Chapter Six Endnotes 1 Union of Con
Page 223 and 224:
43 William Graham, “ULA Atlas V l
Page 225 and 226:
AW_04_19_2010_p35-219773.xml&headli
Page 227 and 228:
138 China State Council Information
Page 229 and 230:
176 Frank Morring, Jr. and Neelam M
Page 231 and 232:
221 Spot Image, “Kompsat 2: e Alt
Page 233 and 234:
265 Andrew Willis, “Galileo contr
Page 235 and 236:
Subcommittee on Investigations, Com
Page 237 and 238:
Programs of Interest,” Center for
Page 239 and 240:
87 John Cummings, “Army nanosatel
Page 241 and 242:
36 Steven Kosiak, “Arming the Hea
Page 243 and 244:
krypton-uoride, helium-argon-xenon,
Page 245 and 246:
101 e Advanced Video Guidance Senso
show all

Space Security Index

Create successful ePaper yourself

Delete template?

Save as template?