Space Security Index

Space Security 2011
126
vulnerability of these systems to attacks by adversaries. On the other hand, the situation
creates incentives for Russia and the U.S. to advance policies to reduce the likelihood of
conict in outer space. Over time, growing interest in cooperating with international allies
and commercial partners, such as in satellite navigation and military communications, may
also reduce such vulnerability and increase interdependence, providing a positive impact on
space security.
Trend 6.2: China and India aord increasing roles to spacebased
military support
China
China’s governmental space program does not maintain a strong separation between civil and
military applications. Ocially, its space program is dedicated to science and exploration, 136
but like the programs of many other actors, it is believed to provide data to the military.
China’s space program is led by the Space Leading Group, whose members include three
senior ocials of government bodies that oversee the defense industry in China. 137 Most of
China’s satellites are civilian or commercial, but many have capabilities that could also be
used for military purposes. Although China has never published a military space doctrine,
its national defense strategy is based on “active defense” that “aims at winning local wars
in conditions of informationization” that include maintaining “space and electromagnetic
space security.” 138
China has advanced remote sensing capabilities that could support imagery intelligence. It
began working on space imagery in the mid-1960s, launching its rst satellite in 1975. 139 It
successfully launched 15 recoverable lm-based satellites, the last of which was reportedly
decommissioned in 1996. 140 Today China maintains two ZY-2 series transmittingtype
optical imagery satellites in LEO that could support tactical reconnaissance and
surveillance. 141 In 2005, China launched the Beijing-1 (Tsingshua-1) microsatellite, a civil
Earth observation spacecraft that combines a multispectral camera with a high-resolution
panchromatic imager and could also support the military. 142 More recently, China launched
a series of six Yaogan satellites for “scientic experiment, survey of land resources, appraisal
of crops and disaster prevention and alleviation.” 143 Two of these satellites are believed to
use synthetic aperture radar, which would provide the Chinese government with all-weather/
night-day imagery that would be advantageous for military use. 144
Western experts believe that Chinese military satellite communications are provided by a
DFH-series satellite, ChinaSat-22. Ocially a civilian communications satellite, ChinaSat-22
is thought to enable “theater commanders to communicate with and share data with all
forces under joint command” through C-band and Ultra High Frequency (UHF) systems. 145
China also operates the Beidou regional navigation system, four satellites in GEO, designed
to augment the data received from the U.S. GPS system and enable China to maintain
navigational capability if the U.S. were to deny GPS services in times of conict. 146 Beidou
may also improve the accuracy of China’s intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs) and
cruise missiles. 147 China has expressed its intention of upgrading Beidou to a global satellite
navigation system — the Beidou-2 or Compass system — expanding on the initial system
to include ve satellites in GEO and 30 in MEO. While Compass falls under China’s
defense ministry, it is intended to provide both an Open Service with position accuracy of
20 m and an Authorized Service that will be “highly reliable even in complex situations.” 148
China launched the rst Compass-M1 test satellite into MEO in 2007. 149 In recent years