Space Security Index

PAROS resolution
Since 1981 the UNGA has passed an annual resolution asking all states to refrain from
actions contrary to the peaceful use of outer space and calling for negotiations in the CD on
a multilateral agreement to support PAROS. 20 PAROS resolutions have had overwhelming
support in the UNGA, demonstrating a widespread desire of the international community
to prohibit the deployment and use of weapons in space. 21 Starting in 1995, however, the
U.S. and Israel consistently abstained from voting on the resolution, and they cast the rst
negative votes in 2005. 22 Israel has since reverted to abstaining.
Multilateral and bilateral arms control and outer space agreements
Since space issues have long been a topic of concern, there are a range of other legal
agreements that have attempted to provide predictability and transparency in the peacetime
deployment or testing of weapons that either travel through space or can be used in space. For
example, one of the key provisions of some arms control treaties, beginning with the 1972
Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty I, has been recognition of the legitimacy of space-based
reconnaissance, or National Technical Means (NTMs), as a mechanism of treaty verication,
and agreement not to interfere with it. 23 A claim can be made, therefore, that a norm of
noninterference with NTMs, early warning satellites, and certain military communications
satellites has been accepted as conforming to the OST’s spirit of populating space with
systems “in the interest of maintaining peace and international security.” 24 A summary of
the key space provisions of these agreements is provided in Table 3.3.
Table 3.3: Multilateral and bilateral arms control and outer space agreements
Agreement Space Security Provisions
Limited Test Ban Treaty (1963) Prohibition of nuclear weapons tests or any other nuclear explosion in
outer space25 Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty I (1972)* Acceptance of, and prohibition of interference with, national technical
means of verification
Freezes the number of intercontinental ballistic missile launchers26 Hotline Modernization Agreement (1973)* Sets up direct satellite communication between the U.S./USSR27 Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty (1972)*† Prohibition of space-based anti-ballistic missile systems and interference
with national technical means of verification28 Environmental Modification Convention (1977) Bans using as weapons modification techniques that have widespread,
long-lasting, or severe effects on space29 Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty II (1979)* Acceptance of, and prohibition of interference with, national technical
means of verification
Prohibits fractional orbital bombardment systems (FOBS) 30
Launch Notification Agreement (1988)* Notification and sharing of parameters in advance of any launch of a
strategic ballistic missile31 Conventional Armed Forces in Europe Treaty (1990) Acceptance of, and prohibition of interference with, national and
multinational technical means of verification32 Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty I (1991)* Acceptance of, and prohibition of interference with, national technical
means of verification33 Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty (1997) Acceptance of, and prohibition of interference with, national technical
means of verification34 Memorandum of Understanding establishing a Exchange of information obtained from respective early warning
Joint Data Exchange Center (2000)*
systems35 Laws, Policies, and Doctrines
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