Space Security Index

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Space Security 2011 162 David McArthur Space Policy Institute, George Washington University Jonathan McDowell Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics Philip Meek United States Air Force, Ret. Paul Meyer e Simons Foundation Ashlyn Milligan National Defence Canada Audrey Schaer Oce of the Secretary of Defense (U.S.) John Siebert Project Ploughshares Dana Smith Foreign Aairs Canada Ronald Spencer United States Air Force – Vandenberg AFB Lucy Stojak HEC Montréal Richard Tremayne-Smith Consultant (U.K.); formerly with the British National Space Centre Brian Weeden Secure World Foundation Ray Williamson Secure World Foundation
Types of Earth Orbits* Low Earth Orbit (LEO) is commonly accepted as below 2,000 kilometers above the Earth’s surface. Spacecraft in LEO make one complete revolution of the Earth in about 90 minutes. Medium Earth Orbit (MEO) is the region of space around the Earth above LEO (2,000 kilometers) and below geosynchronous orbit (36,000 kilometers). e orbital period (time for one orbit) of MEO satellites ranges from about two to 12 hours. e most common use for satellites in this region is for navigation, such as the US Global Positioning System (GPS). Geostationary Orbit (GEO) is a region in which the satellite orbits at approximately 36,000 kilometers above the Earth’s equator. At this altitude, geostationary orbit has a period equal to the period of rotation of the Earth. By orbiting at the same rate, in the same direction as Earth, the satellite appears stationary relative to the surface of the Earth. is is very useful for communications satellites. In addition, geostationary satellites provide a ‘big picture’ view of Earth, enabling coverage of weather events. is is especially useful for monitoring large, severe storms and tropical cyclones. Polar Orbit refers to spacecraft at near-polar inclination and an altitude of 700-to-800 kilometers. e satellite passes over the equator and each latitude on the Earth’s surface at the same local time each day, meaning that the satellite is overhead at essentially the same time throughout all seasons of the year. is feature enables collection of data at regular intervals and consistent times, which is especially useful for making long-term comparisons. Highly Elliptical Orbits (HEO), are characterized by a relatively low altitude perigee and an extremely high-altitude apogee. ese extremely elongated orbits have the advantage of long dwell times at a point in the sky; visibility near apogee can exceed 12 hours. ese elliptical orbits are useful for communications satellites. GEO transfer orbit (GTO) is an elliptical orbit of the Earth, with the perigee in LEO and the apogee in GEO. is orbit is generally a transfer path after launch to LEO by launch vehicles carrying a payload to GEO. Apogee and Perigee refer to the distance from the Earth to the satellite. Apogee is the furthest distance to the Earth, and perigee is the closest distance to the Earth. * From the Space Foundation, e Space Report 2008 (Colorado Springs: Space Foundation 2008), at 52. Annex 2 ANNEX 2: Types of Earth Orbits 163
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SPACE SECURITY 2011 www.spacesecuri
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Library and Archives Canada Catalog
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PAGE 1 Acronyms PAGE 7 Introduction
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PAGE 149 Chapter 8 - Space Systems
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Space Security 2011 2 EHF Extremely
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Space Security 2011 4 NTM National
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Space Security 2011 is the eighth a
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of the three preceding years, in al
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The Space Environment TREND 1.1: Am
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2010 Developments: • Internationa
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2010 Developments: • Shift in U.S
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Civil Space Programs TREND 4.1: Gro
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2010 Developments: • Satellite na
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eyond the ISS partners, without sac
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2010 Developments: • Japan launch
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Space Systems Negation TREND 8.1: I
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The Space Environment is chapter as
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of which fewer than 5 per cent are
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Table 1.3 below lists the Top 10 br
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Figure 1.5: Total cataloged on-orbi
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(German Aerospace Center), ESA, ISR
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approximately six weeks later. NASA
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Originally adopted in 1994, the ITU
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etransmits the programming to cable
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order of years or decades, there ar
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help increase the transparency and
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e 1,100-kg Block 10 satellite conta
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Trend 2.2: Global SSA capabilities
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Space surveillance is an area of gr
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Space Security Impact e European SS
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2010 Development U.S. government co
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states can peacefully discuss, for
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Registration Convention The Convent
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PAROS resolution Since 1981 the UNG
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Space Security Proposals A number o
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threat posed to the access to, and
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on questions and issues put before
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an impasse. Despite the difficultie
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2010 Development Africa considers t
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e EU/ESA European Space Policy adop
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2010 Development U.S. export reform
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space orbits and place great strain
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2010 Development Various countries
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Table 4.4: The 2010 space launch sc
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itself, major contractors such as B
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1. Transporting astronauts to LEO c
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2010 Development Mix of successes a
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Figure 4.7: NASA 2006-2010 budget (
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Table 4.9: Flights to the Internati
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GPS military applications include n
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distribution system that provides a
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Commercial Space is chapter assesse
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espectively. 9 PanAmSat, New Skies,
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in two ways: 1) by amending spectru
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comprised of Boeing (U.S.), Aker Kv
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of the rst two space tourists purc
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At the Spaceport America runway ded
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the U.S. National Geospatial-Intell
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Page 147 and 148: Space Systems Resiliency is chapter
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Page 161 and 162: equipment during Operation Iraqi Fr
Page 163 and 164: satellites in LEO. 43 Japan is an i
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Page 177 and 178: Article XI In order to promote inte
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Page 183 and 184: Chapter One Endnotes 1 D. Wright,
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Page 187 and 188: 97 Joel D. Scheraga, “Establishin
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Page 191 and 192: 69 Ibid. 70 Ibid. 71 European Space
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Page 195 and 196: 54 William J. Broad and Kenneth Cha
Page 197 and 198: 93 Saira Abbasi, “FMCT: An Unnish
Page 199 and 200: 135 K.K. Nair, Space, the Frontiers
Page 201 and 202: 3 Data from Gunter Krebs, Gunter’
Page 203 and 204: 50 Antonio Regalado, “Mexico Gets
Page 205 and 206: 88 Frank Morring Jr., “India Gear
Page 207 and 208: 131 Prime Minister of Russia. “Pr
Page 209 and 210: 170 e Voice of Russia, “Russia, K
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Page 213 and 214: 13 Jim Yardley, “Snubbed by U.S.,
Page 215 and 216: 55 Daniel J. Marcus, “Commerce Pr
Page 217 and 218: 99 Ibid. 100 Space News, “Virgin
Page 219 and 220: 136 Richard DalBello, interview wit
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43 William Graham, “ULA Atlas V l
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AW_04_19_2010_p35-219773.xml&headli
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138 China State Council Information
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176 Frank Morring, Jr. and Neelam M
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221 Spot Image, “Kompsat 2: e Alt
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265 Andrew Willis, “Galileo contr
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Subcommittee on Investigations, Com
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Programs of Interest,” Center for
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87 John Cummings, “Army nanosatel
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36 Steven Kosiak, “Arming the Hea
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krypton-uoride, helium-argon-xenon,
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101 e Advanced Video Guidance Senso
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