Space Security Index

itself, major contractors such as Boeing and Lockheed Martin are often involved in the
development of technologies for new space exploration projects.
During the Cold War, civil space eorts in the Soviet Union were largely decentralized and
led by “design bureaus” — state-owned companies headed by top scientists. Russian launch
capabilities were developed by Strategic Rocket Forces, and cosmonaut training was managed
by the Russian Air Force. Formal coordination of eorts came through the Ministry for
General Machine Building. 53 A Russian space agency (Rossiyskoe Kosmicheskoye Agentstvo)
was established in 1992, and has since been reshaped into Roscosmos. While Roscosmos
is more centralized, most work is still completed by design bureaus, now integrated into
“Science and Production Associations” (NPOs) such as NPO Energia, NPO Energomash,
and NPO Lavochkin. Such decentralization of civil activities makes obtaining accurate,
comprehensive budget gures for Russian civil space programs dicult. 54
In 1961, France established its national space agency, the Centre National d’Études Spatiales,
which remains the largest of the EU national-level agencies. Italy established a national space
agency (ASI) in 1989, followed by Germany in 1990 (DLR). e European Space Research
Organisation and the European Launch Development Organisation, both formed in 1962,
were merged in 1975 into the European Space Agency, which is now the principal space
agency for the region. As of June 2011, ESA had 18 Member States; the last to join was the
Czech Republic on 12 November 2008. Canada participates in ESA programs and activities
as an associate member.
Civil space activities began to grow in China when they were allocated to the China Great
Wall Industry Corporation in 1986. e China Aerospace Corporation was established in
1993, followed by the development of the China National Space Administration. CNSA
remains the central civil space agency in China and reports through the Commission of
Science, Technology and Industry for National Defense to the State Council.
In Japan, civil space was initially coordinated by the National Space Activities Council formed
in 1960. Most of the work was performed by the Institute of Space and Aeronautical Science
of the University of Tokyo, the National Aerospace Laboratory, and, most importantly,
the National Space Development Agency. In 2003, these eorts were all assumed by the
Japanese Aerospace Exploration Agency. 55 India’s civil space agency ISRO was founded in
1969. Israel’s space agency was formed in 1982, Canada’s in 1989, and Agência Espacial
Brasileira in 1994.
Expenditures
Although still dwarng the civil space budgets of all other actors put together, the NASA
budget dropped 25 per cent in real terms between 1992 and 2001. 56 e ESA budget dropped
nine per cent in the same period. is follows a long period of growth (1970-1991) for both
NASA and ESA, during which the NASA budget grew 60 per cent and the ESA budget 165
per cent in real terms. 57 NASA’s budget is now close to $19-billion per scal year.
e USSR/Russia was the most active civil space actor from 1970 until the early 1990s,
when sharp funding decreases led to a reduction in the number of civil missions. By 2001,
the number of Russian military, civil, and commercial satellites in space had decreased
from over 180 during the Soviet era to approximately 90. e budget had been reduced
to $309-million — about 20 per cent of the 1989 expenditure and less than the cost of a
single launch of the U.S. space shuttle. 58 is steady decline was reversed in 2005, however,
when Russia approved a 10-year program with a budget of approximately $11-billion. 59 e
Civil Space Programs
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