69249454-chandler-semiotics

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spatial (e.g. in paintings or photographs). See also paradigmatic
analysis, syntagmatic analysis.
syntagmatic analysis Syntagmatic analysis is a structuralist technique
which seeks to establish the ‘surface structure’ of a text
and the relationships between its parts. See also paradigmatic
analysis, syntagm.
text Most broadly, this term is used to refer to anything which can
be ‘read’ for meaning; to some theorists, the world is ‘social
text’. Although the term appears to privilege written texts (it
seems graphocentric and logocentric), to most semioticians a
text is a system of signs (in the form of words, images, sounds
and/or gestures). The term is often used to refer to recorded
(e.g. written) texts which are independent of their users (used
in this sense the term excludes unrecorded speech). See also
representation.
tokens and types Peirce made a distinction between tokens and
types. In relation to words in a text, a count of the tokens would
be a count of the total number of words used (regardless of
type), while a count of the types would be a count of the
different words used (ignoring any repetition). The medium
used may determine whether a text is a type which is its own
sole token (unique original) or simply one token among many
of its type (‘a copy without an original’). See also digital signs.
transcendent(al) signified Derrida argued that dominant ideological
discourse relies on the metaphysical illusion of a transcendental
signified – an ultimate referent at the heart of a signifying
system which is portrayed as ‘absolute and irreducible’, stable,
timeless and transparent – as if it were independent of and prior
to that system. All other signifieds within that signifying system
are subordinate to this dominant central signified which is the
final meaning to which they point. Without such a foundational
term to provide closure for meaning, every signified functions
as a signifier in an endless play of signification. See also deconstruction,
empty signifier, markedness.
transformation, rules of Lévi-Strauss argued that new structural patterns
within a culture are generated from existing ones through
formal rules of transformation based on systematic similarities,