Technologies and Costs for Removal of Arsenic From Drinking Water

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POUpoint-of-useppbparts per billionppmparts per millionPPIProducer Price Index (for Finished Goods)psipounds per square inchpsigpounds per square inch gaugePVCpolyvinyl chlorideRCRAResource Conservation and Recovery ActROreverse osmosisscfstandard cubic feetSDsanitary landfill disposalSDWASafe Drinking Water Actsfsquare feetSLstorage lagoonsSMISulfur-Modified IronSOCsynthetic organic compoundsq ftsquare feetTBLLTechnically Based Local LimitsTCLPToxicity Characteristic Leaching ProcedureTDStotal dissolved solidsTOCtotal organic carbonTSStotal suspended solidsTWGTechnologies Working GroupUFultrafiltrationUV 254 ultraviolet 254WETWhole Effluent ToxicitywkweekyryearFg/Lmicrograms per literx
1.0 INTRODUCTION1.1 OVERVIEWArsenic (As) is a naturally occurring element present in food, water, and air. Known forcenturies to be an effective poison, some animal studies suggest that arsenic may be an essentialnutrient at low concentrations. Non-malignant skin alterations, such as keratosis and hypo- and hyperpigmentation,have been linked to arsenic ingestion, and skin cancers have developed in some patients.Additional studies indicate that arsenic ingestion may result in internal malignancies, includingcancers of the kidney, bladder, liver, lung, and other organs. Vascular system effects have also beenobserved, including peripheral vascular disease, which in its most severe form, results in gangreneor Blackfoot Disease. Other potential effects include neurologic impairment (Lomaquahu and Smith,1998).The primary route of exposure to arsenic for humans is ingestion. Exposure via inhalation isconsidered minimal, though there are regions where elevated levels of airborne arsenic occurperiodically (Hering and Chiu, 1998). Arsenic occurs in two primary forms; organic and inorganic.Organic species of arsenic are predominantly found in foodstuffs, such as shellfish, and include suchforms as monomethyl arsenic acid (MMAA), dimethyl arsenic acid (DMAA), and arseno-sugars.Inorganic arsenic occurs in two valence states, arsenite (As III) and arsenate (As V). As(III) speciesconsist primarily of arsenious acid (H 3 AsO 3 ) in natural waters. As(V) species consist primarily of- 2-H 2 AsO 4 and HAsO 4 in natural waters (Clifford and Lin, 1995). Most natural waters contain themore toxic inorganic forms of arsenic. Natural groundwaters contain predominantle As(III) sincereducing conditions prevail. In natural surface waters As(V) is the dominant species. Arsenicremoval technologies for drinking water include:# Precipitative processes, including coagulation/filtration (C/F), direct filtration,coagulation assisted microfiltration, enhanced coagulation, lime softening (LS), andenhanced lime softening;# Adsorption processes, specifically activated alumina (AA);# Ion exchange (IX) processes, specifically anion exchange;# Membrane filtration, including reverse osmosis (RO), and electrodialysis reversal(EDR);1-1
Page 1: United StatesEnvironmental Protecti
Page 5: ACKNOWLEDGMENTSThis document was pr
Page 8 and 9: 2.5.7 Reverse Osmosis .............
Page 10 and 11: 5.0 POINT-OF-ENTRY/POINT-OF-USE TRE
Page 12 and 13: LIST OF FIGURES2-1 Pressure Driven
Page 14 and 15: LIST OF ACRONYMSAAAWWAAWWARFBLSBVC/
Page 18 and 19: # Alternative treatment processes s
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Page 23 and 24: ends up as ferric hydroxide. In alu
Page 25 and 26: Optimization Hierarchy for Coagulat
Page 27 and 28: Substantial arsenic removal has bee
Page 29 and 30: Vickers et al. (1997) reported that
Page 31 and 32: was reduced to 0.05 mg/L when the i
Page 33 and 34: Field StudiesSurveys of lime soften
Page 35 and 36: Effect of pHpH may have significant
Page 37 and 38: RegenerationRegeneration of AA beds
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Page 41 and 42: applicability of IX at a particular
Page 43 and 44: TABLE 2-1Typical IX Resins for Arse
Page 45 and 46: solution strength. Arsenic elutes r
Page 47 and 48: 2.4.12 Typical Design ParametersThr
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Page 63 and 64: 2.6 ALTERNATIVE TECHNOLOGIES2.6.1 I
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The most significant weakness of th
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3.0 TECHNOLOGY COSTS3.1 INTRODUCTIO
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included in the estimates presented
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Table 3-3Water Model Capital Cost B
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3.2.3 Implementing TDP Recommended
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sources. The September 1998 index v
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Amortization, or capital recovery,
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3.3 ADDITIONAL CAPITAL COSTSThe cos
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PilotingThe Technology Design Panel
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The 1993 Technology and Cost Docume
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cause disinfection by-product (DBP)
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Figure 3-1Pre-oxidation - 1.5 mg/L
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3.6 PRECIPITATIVE PROCESSES3.6.1 Co
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enhanced coagulation treatment plan
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Figure 3-4Enhanced Coagulation/Filt
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Small Systems (Less than 1 mgd)The
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Figure 3-6Coagulation Assisted Micr
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3.6.6 Enhanced Lime SofteningEnhanc
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Figure 3-8Enhanced Lime SofteningO&
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3. Empty Bed Contact Time (EBCT) is
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For design flows greater than 1 mgd
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Figure 3-9Activated AluminaCapital
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Figure 3-11Activated Alumina (pH 8
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Figure 3-13Activated Alumina (pH Ad
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3.7.2 Granular Ferric HydroxideGran
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6. The capital costs include a redu
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Figure 3-15Bed Volumes to Arsenic B
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Figure 3-17Anion Exchange (< 20 mg/
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Figure 3-19Anion Exchange (20-50 mg
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quality feed stream and often requi
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Figure 3-20Greensand FiltrationCapi
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3.11 COMPARISON OF COSTSThe April 1
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4.0 RESIDUALS HANDLING AND DISPOSAL
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mechanical dewatering processes. Wh
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Storage lagoons are best suited for
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the current Industrial Pretreatment
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4.3.3 Dewatered Sludge Land Applica
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usually determined by the Paint Fil
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for arsenic toxicity by a substanti
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The solids content of the backwash
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carbonate hardness removal produces
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Domestic sewage means untreated san
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4.4.10 Reverse OsmosisReverse osmos
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Figure 4-1Anion Exchange (< 20 mg/L
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Figure 4-3Anion Exchange (20-50 mg/
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Figure 4-9Activated Alumina (pH 7 -
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Figure 4-11Activated Alumina (pH Ad
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Figure 4-13Greensand FiltrationWast
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5.0 POINT-OF-ENTRY/POINT-OF-USE TRE
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chromatographic peaking, which occu
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5.3.1 Case Study 1: Fairbanks, Alas
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Manufacturer and laboratory data su
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Figure 5-2POU Reverse OsmosisO&M Co
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# Installation time - 1 hour unskil
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Figure 5-3POU Activated AluminaTota
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6.0 REFERENCESAmy, G.L. and P. Bran
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Cooperative Research Centres for Wa
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Fuller, C.C., J.A. Davis, G.W. Zell
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Le, X.C., and M. Ma (1998). “Dete
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Scott, K., J. Green, H.D. Do and S.
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Appendix AVery Small Systems Capita
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Table A4 - VSS Document Capital Cos
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Table B1.1 - Base Costs Obtained fr
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Table B11.1 - Base Costs Obtained f
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Table B13.1 - Base Costs Obtained f
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Appendix CW/W Cost Model Capital Co
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Table C2.1 - Base Costs Obtained fr
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Table C10.1 - Base Costs Obtained f
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APPENDIX D: BASIS FOR REVISED ACTIV
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Company case study is 18 minutes (2
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egressed against their respective v
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costs for small systems is as follo
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were based on $40/sq ft). The proce
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Basis. Capital cost components incl
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The source water at Plant D has the
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equation y = (2*10 -8 )x 2 + 0.0002
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The maximum run length is 18,500 be
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Since the available arsenic capacit
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If the first column can be operated
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which includes lighting, ventilatio
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disposal costs, if needed, are cove
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Appendix EBasis for Revised Anion E
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2. The estimated cost of the anion
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9. The capital costs have been esti
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Thus, the cost of a road and fence
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length when sulfate is at or below
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the labor rates for both large and
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2. US EPA. Technologies and Costs f
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Technologies and Costs for Removal of Arsenic From Drinking Water

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