Technologies and Costs for Removal of Arsenic From Drinking Water

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of California Water Agencies indicated that land costs could be as high as 5% of total annualizedcosts. This is based on land prices in California, so it represents an upper bound for the nation.It is expected that systems with existing treatment will usually have adequate land available.Furthermore, small ground water systems are not expected to have land acquisition requirements.Intermediate to large ground water systems and large surface water systems with appreciable groundwater use may need to acquire land. However, according to SDWIS, these systems comprise onlyabout five percent of all community water systems in the United States.Based on the above discussion, 5% of the capital costs was selected as the upper boundincrease associated with land at ground water sites. This upper bound can be used in a sensitivityanalysis to evaluate an upper bound impact of land on costs. Many systems may not need to purchaseland for arsenic treatment.RetrofittingAll costs presented in this document are for new construction, with the exception of theenhanced coagulation and enhanced lime softening processes. All processes contained in the costmodels include pipes and valves, electrical and instrumentation, and other costs associated withretrofitting. It was assumed that the costs included are sufficient for the retrofit of existingcoagulation/filtration and softening plants.PermittingThe Very Small Systems Document, the Water Model and the W/W Model all include costsfor legal, fiscal and administrative costs. These costs vary by model and system size. Legal, fiscaland administrative costs are included in the engineering cost factor. For the base case, permittingcosts are covered by the legal, fiscal and administrative costs in the models.An upper bound for sensitivity analysis was based on the Technology Design Panelrecommendation of permitting costs as 3% of construction value (EPA, 1998). Participants in the TDPalso recommended a floor of $2500 for systems serving less than 10,000 people. The upper bound thatcan be used to assess sensitivity of the costs to permitting is an additional 3% of the capital costsrather than 3% of the construction value. This approach will yield a higher cost for permitting.3-14
PilotingThe Technology Design Panel stated that pilot testing needed to be part of EPA’s high costmodels or upper bound estimates (EPA, 1998). Members of the large system breakout group indicatedthat large systems will need to conduct pilot tests in all cases for treatment optimization. The costsin this document assume that pilot testing is covered by the existing capital costs due to theconservative assumptions used to develop these costs. The technology costs presented in this chapterdo not assume optimized design and operation at each site. Systems which incur piloting costs willgenerally achieve more optimized, lower cost, technology applications.An upper bound for piloting was also estimated. In other cost analyses, EPA has assumed thatpiloting costs would be approximately 3% of the total capital costs for a technology. The sensitivityanalysis can use 3% of the capital costs as an upper bound.Waste DisposalThe characteristics of arsenic-containing waste streams is presented in Chapter 4.Appropriate handling and disposal methods are discussed for residuals generated by each treatmentprocess for which capital and O&M cost estimates are provided. Cost equations for disposal by eachof these methods are presented in Small Water System Byproducts Treatment and Disposal CostDocument (DPRA, 1993a) and Water System Byproducts Treatment and Disposal Cost Document(DPRA, 1993b).Storage/BuildingAll of the cost models used in preparing the technologies and costs document include costs forhousing of equipment. It is assumed that the costs included in the model output is sufficient. As aresult, additional building costs are not included. It is also assumed for all scenarios that source waterproduction is consistent, and storage for source water is not provided.RedundancyThere are redundant items included in the cost equations for several of the technologies inChapter 3. For example, redundant columns were included in the costs for anion exchange andactivated alumina. Thus, redundancy is included for the major cost component in the design for these3-15
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United StatesEnvironmental Protecti
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTSThis document was pr
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2.5.7 Reverse Osmosis .............
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5.0 POINT-OF-ENTRY/POINT-OF-USE TRE
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LIST OF FIGURES2-1 Pressure Driven
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LIST OF ACRONYMSAAAWWAAWWARFBLSBVC/
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POUpoint-of-useppbparts per billion
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# Alternative treatment processes s
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ends up as ferric hydroxide. In alu
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Optimization Hierarchy for Coagulat
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Substantial arsenic removal has bee
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Vickers et al. (1997) reported that
Page 31 and 32: was reduced to 0.05 mg/L when the i
Page 33 and 34: Field StudiesSurveys of lime soften
Page 35 and 36: Effect of pHpH may have significant
Page 37 and 38: RegenerationRegeneration of AA beds
Page 39 and 40: een developed provide important inf
Page 41 and 42: applicability of IX at a particular
Page 43 and 44: TABLE 2-1Typical IX Resins for Arse
Page 45 and 46: solution strength. Arsenic elutes r
Page 47 and 48: 2.4.12 Typical Design ParametersThr
Page 49 and 50: 2.5.2 Important Factors for Membran
Page 51 and 52: arsenic size distribution to correl
Page 53 and 54: AWWARF (1998) also performed UF pil
Page 55 and 56: presumably due to changes in electr
Page 57 and 58: RO performance is adversely affecte
Page 59 and 60: TABLE 2-10Arsenic Removal with RO a
Page 61 and 62: eversal is the decreased potential
Page 63 and 64: 2.6 ALTERNATIVE TECHNOLOGIES2.6.1 I
Page 65 and 66: 20 mg As per gram of iron was remov
Page 67 and 68: The most significant weakness of th
Page 69 and 70: 3.0 TECHNOLOGY COSTS3.1 INTRODUCTIO
Page 71 and 72: included in the estimates presented
Page 73 and 74: Table 3-3Water Model Capital Cost B
Page 75 and 76: 3.2.3 Implementing TDP Recommended
Page 77 and 78: sources. The September 1998 index v
Page 79 and 80: Amortization, or capital recovery,
Page 81: 3.3 ADDITIONAL CAPITAL COSTSThe cos
Page 85 and 86: The 1993 Technology and Cost Docume
Page 87 and 88: cause disinfection by-product (DBP)
Page 89 and 90: Figure 3-1Pre-oxidation - 1.5 mg/L
Page 91 and 92: 3.6 PRECIPITATIVE PROCESSES3.6.1 Co
Page 93 and 94: enhanced coagulation treatment plan
Page 95 and 96: Figure 3-4Enhanced Coagulation/Filt
Page 97 and 98: Small Systems (Less than 1 mgd)The
Page 99 and 100: Figure 3-6Coagulation Assisted Micr
Page 101 and 102: 3.6.6 Enhanced Lime SofteningEnhanc
Page 103 and 104: Figure 3-8Enhanced Lime SofteningO&
Page 105 and 106: 3. Empty Bed Contact Time (EBCT) is
Page 107 and 108: For design flows greater than 1 mgd
Page 109 and 110: Figure 3-9Activated AluminaCapital
Page 111 and 112: Figure 3-11Activated Alumina (pH 8
Page 113 and 114: Figure 3-13Activated Alumina (pH Ad
Page 115 and 116: 3.7.2 Granular Ferric HydroxideGran
Page 117 and 118: 6. The capital costs include a redu
Page 119 and 120: Figure 3-15Bed Volumes to Arsenic B
Page 121 and 122: Figure 3-17Anion Exchange (< 20 mg/
Page 123 and 124: Figure 3-19Anion Exchange (20-50 mg
Page 125 and 126: quality feed stream and often requi
Page 127 and 128: Figure 3-20Greensand FiltrationCapi
Page 129 and 130: 3.11 COMPARISON OF COSTSThe April 1
Page 131 and 132: 4.0 RESIDUALS HANDLING AND DISPOSAL
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mechanical dewatering processes. Wh
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Storage lagoons are best suited for
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the current Industrial Pretreatment
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4.3.3 Dewatered Sludge Land Applica
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usually determined by the Paint Fil
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for arsenic toxicity by a substanti
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The solids content of the backwash
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carbonate hardness removal produces
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Domestic sewage means untreated san
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4.4.10 Reverse OsmosisReverse osmos
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Figure 4-1Anion Exchange (< 20 mg/L
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Figure 4-3Anion Exchange (20-50 mg/
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Figure 4-5Coagulation Assisted Micr
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Figure 4-7Coagulation Assisted Micr
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Figure 4-9Activated Alumina (pH 7 -
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Figure 4-11Activated Alumina (pH Ad
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Figure 4-13Greensand FiltrationWast
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5.0 POINT-OF-ENTRY/POINT-OF-USE TRE
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chromatographic peaking, which occu
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5.3.1 Case Study 1: Fairbanks, Alas
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Manufacturer and laboratory data su
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Figure 5-2POU Reverse OsmosisO&M Co
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# Installation time - 1 hour unskil
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Figure 5-3POU Activated AluminaTota
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6.0 REFERENCESAmy, G.L. and P. Bran
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Cooperative Research Centres for Wa
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Fuller, C.C., J.A. Davis, G.W. Zell
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Le, X.C., and M. Ma (1998). “Dete
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Scott, K., J. Green, H.D. Do and S.
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Appendix AVery Small Systems Capita
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Table A4 - VSS Document Capital Cos
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Table B1.1 - Base Costs Obtained fr
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Table B11.1 - Base Costs Obtained f
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Table B13.1 - Base Costs Obtained f
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Appendix CW/W Cost Model Capital Co
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Table C2.1 - Base Costs Obtained fr
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Table C10.1 - Base Costs Obtained f
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APPENDIX D: BASIS FOR REVISED ACTIV
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Company case study is 18 minutes (2
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egressed against their respective v
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costs for small systems is as follo
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were based on $40/sq ft). The proce
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Basis. Capital cost components incl
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The source water at Plant D has the
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equation y = (2*10 -8 )x 2 + 0.0002
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The maximum run length is 18,500 be
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Since the available arsenic capacit
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If the first column can be operated
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which includes lighting, ventilatio
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disposal costs, if needed, are cove
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Appendix EBasis for Revised Anion E
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2. The estimated cost of the anion
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9. The capital costs have been esti
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Thus, the cost of a road and fence
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length when sulfate is at or below
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the labor rates for both large and
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2. US EPA. Technologies and Costs f
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Technologies and Costs for Removal of Arsenic From Drinking Water

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