POLLINATORS POLLINATION AND FOOD PRODUCTION

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THE ASSESSMENT REPORT ON POLLINATORS, POLLINATION AND FOOD PRODUCTION 76 2. DRIVERS OF CHANGE OF POLLINATORS, POLLINATION NETWORKS AND POLLINATION nutrition, pesticides, etc., which cause stress and thus together contribute to pollinator declines (vanEngelsdorp et al., 2010; Vanbergen and the Insect Pollinators Initiative, 2013). Table 2.4.1 gives an overview of bee parasites and pathogens. 2.4.1.1 Honey bee parasites and pathogens A honey bee colony may harbor a wide variety of diseasecausing agents, bacteria, fungi, viruses, parasitic mites and even other insects that try to take advantage of the rich resources contained within bee colonies (Morse et al., 1990; Evans and Spivak, 2010). Experiments to determine cause and effect often use a single pathogen but multiple pathogens, including viruses, may be contributing to colony decline (Johnson, 2009; vanEngelsdorp et al., 2010, Cornman et al., 2012). Interactions have been documented between Black Queen Cell Virus (BQCV) and Nosema (Doublet et al., 2015) and pesticide exposure and Nosema (Alaux et al., 2010b; Vidau et al., 2011, Pettis et al., 2012) but these same effects have not been seen at the colony level (Retsching et al., 2015). What is widely accepted is that bee diseases vary in time and space (Highfield et al., 2009; Martin et al., 2012) and are often associated with bee colonies that are not in ideal nutritional state or under some other form of stress (Staveley et al., 2014), such as transportation (Ahn et al., 2012), pesticide exposure (Pettis et al., 2013) or crowding (Morse et al., 1990). 2.4.1.1.1 Viruses of honey bees Viral diseases are numerous in bees, with over 18 identified; the major ones studied being Acute bee paralysis virus (ABPV); Black Queen Cell Virus (BQCV); Chronic bee paralysis virus (CBPV); DWV; Israel Acute Paralysis Virus (IAPV); Kashmir bee virus (KBV); and Sacbrood virus (SBV). Viral infections in honey bee colonies have often been reported to be involved in the collapse of bee colonies infested with Varroa destructor (de Miranda et al., 2011). The combination of Varroa and many viruses are known to impact colony survival (Neuman and Carreck 2010; Nazzi et al., 2012). Specifically, the association of Varroa mite infestation with Deformed wing virus (DWV) has been reported to be responsible for colony losses (Martin et al., 2012; Dainat et al., 2012; Ryabov et al., 2014). 2.4.1.1.2 Bacteria of honey bees Bacterial diseases including American Foulbrood (AFB) and European Foulbrood are caused by Paenibacillus larvae ssp. larvae and by Melissococcus plutonius, respectively. Both foulbrood diseases are “notifiable” (must be reported to appropriate authorities) in most parts of the world (OIE, 1996) as they are contagious and can cause damage to equipment by contamination and death to colonies that become heavily infected (Morse et al., 1990). 2.4.1.1.3 Fungi of honey bees Fungal agents include Nosema (or nosemosis), which is probably the most widespread adult honey bee pathogen and includes two species, Nosema apis and Nosema ceranae, both of which are microsporidia that infect the gut of adult bees, but infection may or may not affect hive productivity (Fries, 2010). Nosema ceranae is a parasite that was first described to infect A. cerana (Fries et al., 1996) and has become widespread in A. mellifera throughout the world (Fries et al., 2006; Higes et al., 2006; Cox-Foster et al., 2007; Klee et al., 2007). Nosema ceranae also has wide host range, for example in Apis species (i.e. A. florea, A. dorsata, and A. korchevnikovi) and bumble bees (Plischuk et al., 2009; Li et al., 2012). The wide host range of this parasite is of significant epidemiological concern. Other fungal diseases of bees include ‘Chalkbrood’ (Ascosphaera apis) and ‘Stonebrood’, caused by Aspergillus fumigatus, Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus niger, both of which can result in larval death. 2.4.1.1.4 Parasitic mites of honey bees The major parasitic mites include two external mites, Varroa spp. and Tropilaelaps spp., with Varroa being widespread while the Tropilaelaps mites only attack honey bees in Asian countries, including but not limited to South Korea, China and Thailand (Oldroyd and Wongsiri, 2009). A small internal parasitic mite with worldwide distribution is the tracheal mite Acarapis woodi that infests the airways of adult honey bees. 2.4.1.1.5 Pests of honey bees Honey bee pests are numerous and include many invertebrates and some vertebrates (Morse et al., 1990). Birds can be problematic; “bee eaters” (Merops sp.) are pests in managed apiaries in the Old World (Fry, 2001; Kastberger and Sharma, 2000). Several hornets are major pests around the world (Oldroyd and Wongsiri, 2009), and Vespa velutina has recently spread to Europe from SE Asia (Villemant et al., 2011). Another pest that has recently expanded its host range is the small hive beetle, Aethina tumida, moving from Africa to the US, Australia, Portugal and Italy in the past 20 years (Hood, 2004; Neumann and Elzen, 2004; Mutinelli, 2014). The small hive beetle has the potential to damage bees beyond the genus Apis and may threaten bumble bees (Hoffmann et al., 2008) as well as stingless bees (Greco et al., 2010). Of the known pest, the parasitic mites are most problematic, as they switch host and spread worldwide (Morse et al., 1990, Oldroyd and Wongsiri, 2009).
THE ASSESSMENT REPORT ON POLLINATORS, POLLINATION AND FOOD PRODUCTION TABLE 2.4.1 Bee parasites and pathogens. Viruses Host Remarks References Acute bee paralysis virus (ABPV) Black queen cell virus (BQCV) Chronic bee paralysis virus(CBPV) Deformed wing virus (DWV) Israeli Acute Paralysis Virus (IAPV) Kashmir bee virus (KBV) Sacbrood virus (SBV) Thailand sacbrood virus(TSBV) Chinese sacbrood virus (CSBV) Apis mellifera; Apis ceranae; Bombus spp. Apis mellifera, Apis ceranae, A. florea, A.dorsata; Bombus spp., Megachile rotundata, Nomia melanderi (only in adults) Apis mellifera, Apis ceranae Apis mellifera, Apis ceranae, A. florea, A.dorsata; Bombus spp., Nomia melanderi Apis mellifera, Apis ceranae, Megachile rotundata, Nomia melanderi Apis mellifera, Apis ceranae, Bombus spp. Apis mellifera, Apis ceranae., Nomia melanderi (SBV only in adults) Varroa mites can“activate”release virus in Apis. In Bombus, experimental infection. Mainly affects developing queen larvae and pupae in the capped-cell stage. Associated with Nosema apis. Found in different Bombus species Causes the same symptoms of trembling and the iability to fly in infected bees that ABPV. Causes well-defined disease symptoms(crumpled wings, shrunken, decreased body size, and discoloration), activated by Varroa. A widespread RNA virus of honey bees that has been linked with colony losses, activated by Varroa. It disrupts the diapause of Megachile rotundata, though does not affect larval survival and development. ‘Covert’ infections. Multiplies quickly and kills host within 3 days when injected. Highly infective in Apis ceranae, Causes the delince of A. ceranae. Lake Sinai Virus (LSV) Apis mellifera, Common and very abundant at peak incidence 12 Tobacco Ringspot Virus (TRSV) Apis mellifera Host-jumping virus from plant to honeybee 13 Black-head virus Nomia melanderi Dead pupae has a black head. Little is know about this virus and its effects. Mahagony virus Nomia melanderi Dead pupae are uniform mahagony color. Little is know about this virus and itseffect. Protozoa Crithidia mellificae, Leptomonas apis 1 2, 43 3 4,5, 42 6, 7, 43 8 9,10,11, 42, 43 Apis mellifera Common. No harmful effects known. 14,15 Crithidia bombi Bombus spp., subgenus Psithyrus Highly infective, In Psithyrus: known from males only. 16,17 Crithidia expoeki Bombus spp. 17 Amoeba (Malpighamoeba mellificae) Apis mellifera Associated with Bee Virus and Nosema apis, Few effects. 18 Apicystis (=Mattesia) bombi Bombus spp. Psithyrus Also found in queens. 19 Bacteria and Mollicutes Melissococcus (Streptococcus) plutonius Apis mellifera Causes European Foulbrood. More benign than American foulbrood. Paenibacillus (Bacillus)larvae Apis mellifera, Osmia bicornis Causes American Foulbrood. Kills larvae after cocoon is spun. Pathogenicity is speculative in mason bees that may only serve as an intermediate host, vector or habitat for these bacteria, which are virulent to honey bees. Aerobacter cloaca Apis mellifera, Bombus In ovaries of queens. Causes B-meleanosis 21 Bacillus alvei, B.laterosporus Apis mellifera Some are secondary invaders with P.larvae after years of endemic foulbrood. Bacillus pulvifaciens Apis mellifera Causes"powdery scale” of larvae. Perhaps a saprophyte that occasionally infects larvae Bacillus thuringiensis Osmia bicornis Pathogenicity is speculative and mason bees may only serve as an intermediate host, vector or habitat for these bacteria, which are virulent to honey bees. Bacterium eurydice Apis mellifera Secondary invader with M.pluton 21 Hafnia alvei Apis mellifera Associated with infection by Varroa mites. Causes septicemia and death when in hemolymph. Nonidentified bacterium (gram-positive) Pseudomonas aeriginosa, P.apiseptica Spiroplasma apis, S. melliferum Bombus melanopygus Dead larvae characteristically hard. 21 Apis mellifera In hemolymph of moribund bees near hives, also in soil. 21 Apis mellifera, Bombus spp., Osmia bicornis, Osmia corniforns In Bombus in hemolyph, Found on flowers, also in solitary bees. There is no information whether these are real pathogens in mason bees 42 42 20 20, 44 21 21 44 21 21, 44, 45 77 2. DRIVERS OF CHANGE OF POLLINATORS, POLLINATION NETWORKS AND POLLINATION
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FOREWORD The objective of the Inter
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THE METHODOLOGICAL ASSESSMENT OF SC
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478 ANNEXES
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POLLINATORS POLLINATION AND FOOD PRODUCTION

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