POLLINATORS POLLINATION AND FOOD PRODUCTION

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THE ASSESSMENT REPORT ON POLLINATORS, POLLINATION AND FOOD PRODUCTION 414 6. RESPONSES TO RISKS AND OPPORTUNITIES ASSOCIATED WITH POLLINATORS AND POLLINATION became an official Government initiative in 2009, led by the Brazilian Ministry of the Environment, and established research networks focused on 11 valuable crops including cashew, Brazil nut and apple. These networks were funded by the Brazilian Research Council (CNPq; costing US $2 million in total) and supported by a range of international institutions (http://www.polinizadoresdobrasil.org.br/index. php/pt/). In 2010, the African Pollinator Initiative published a guide for the identification of tropical bee genera and subgenera of sub-Saharan Africa, in both English and French. This is available free to download at http://www. abctaxa.be/volumes/vol-7-bees, and hardcopies are freely available for people in developing countries. Between 2010 and 2014, 349 free copies of the book were distributed to people in 16 countries, including Cameroon, Ethiopia, Sri Lanka and Malaysia. More recently, several countries have initiated strategic policy initiatives on pollinators at the national level. They include the Welsh Pollinator Action Plan, the National Pollinator Strategy for England, and the US National Pollinator Health Strategy. There is no doubt that these integrated actions and strategies can lead to policy change with the potential to influence pollinator management on the ground. There are examples of both non-Governmental Pollinator Initiatives (the North American Pollinator Protection Campaign) and national pollinator strategies (The National Pollinator Strategy for England) leading to specific consideration of pollinators in agricultural policy. In the US, the NAPPC worked with other organisations to ensure that the 2008 Farm Bill included pollinator programs. In England, a new agri-environmental scheme being designed for the latest reform of the Common Agricultural Policy, to start in 2016, will include an optional package of measures targeted to pollinators, as a direct result of Government signing up to a National Pollinator Strategy for England. In both cases this was possible because action on pollinators was demanded at the appropriate time, during a development stage in the agricultural policy cycle (Dicks et al., 2015; see section 6.1 for explanation of the policy cycle). all 9-10 year old school children (Secretaría de Educación Pública, Mexico, 2014). We found no published evidence of pollinator education programs leading to impacts on pollinator populations through behaviour change. Environmental education (EE) research, drawing on the fields of environmental psychology and sociology, provides evidence of particular outreach and education strategies that result in behaviour changes in the audience. The early and persistent assumption that environmental knowledge leads to environmental attitudes, which then lead to proenvironmental behaviour, is no longer accepted (Kollmuss and Agyeman, 2002). Instead, numerous evidence-based theories involving meta-analyses of existing studies have identified variables associated with pro-environmental behaviour. Some of these variables are relevant to the specific behaviours necessary to enhance pollinator populations: knowledge of the issue and action strategies to address it, perception of one’s own ability to affect change (internal locus of control), pro-environmental attitudes, verbal commitment to the behaviour, sense of personal responsibility for the environment, and social and institutional constraints to the desired behaviour. Key behaviour-change strategies that influence these variables can be drawn from standard techniques in social marketing (Monroe, 2003). They include: tailor the message and the types of information provided to the audience, including understanding barriers and benefits to the behaviours for that audience; use methods that create commitment to the behaviours, including providing vivid, meaningful procedural information about the action desired (Monroe, 2003). Pollinators, unlike many targets of environmental education, allow the public to make a direct link between learning and specific behaviours. The two main strategies of pollinator education campaigns expected to be effective in producing behaviour change are: 1) Building awareness and concern about the declines in populations of some pollinator species and their role in food production; 2) Practical training and real opportunities for action, such as planting a garden or reducing pesticide use. 6.4.6.3 Integrated knowledge responses 6.4.6.3.1 Changing behaviour through engagement and education Education and outreach programs focused on pollinators and pollination have increased in recent years globally, in both school curricula and informal settings (museums, websites, conservation programs, entertainment media such as TV and radio). For example, in Mexico, scientific information on pollination and the role of bats is included in a fourth-grade text book issued by the Government to Many public programs around the world use these education strategies. Conservation organizations such as the Xerces Society (USA), Bumblebee Conservation Trust (UK), and the Pollinator Partnership (USA) offer conferences, workshops and/or training that specifically provide information and hands-on practice with pollinator habitat enhancement techniques, as well as online educational materials, for landowners, farmers, teachers and the broader public. University programs aimed at post-graduates and professionals in agriculture and environmental sciences provide courses on pollinator biology, management and conservation. For example a two-week Pollination
THE ASSESSMENT REPORT ON POLLINATORS, POLLINATION AND FOOD PRODUCTION Course is provided by government, university and NGO partners in Brazil. This has run every year since 2008 (every other year 2003-2008), and has intensively trained nearly 300 professionals (http://pollinationcourse.wix. com/2014english). Pollinator citizen science programs are numerous (see Citizen Science section) and in addition to producing monitoring data, are also effective education programs, engaging thousands of volunteers by providing information about the role of pollinators in ecosystems and food production, and providing an opportunity for action by monitoring the pollinators in their local area (Toomey and Domroese, 2013). 6.4.6.3.2 Research and monitoring There are funding programmes dedicated to pollinators or pollination research in Australia, the UK, USA, Brazil, India, Kenya and South Africa. For example, between 2003 and 2009, the Brazilian Government invested US$ 3.3 million in development of management plans for native pollinators of plants of economic value, including West Indian cherry, guava, tomato, mango, passion fruit, cashews, Brazil nuts, melons, and cotton (http://www.cnpq.br/web/guest/ chamadas-publicas;jsessionid=22C71C12E78764DEB 8534068636DF7AC?p_p_id=resultadosportlet_WAR_ resultadoscnpqportlet_INSTANCE_0ZaM&idDivulgacao= 76&filtro=resultados&detalha=chamadaDetalhada&exib e=exibe&id=116-16-938&idResultado=116-16-938 and http://www.mma.gov.br/biodiversidade/projetos-sobre-abiodiveridade/projeto-de-conserva%C3%A7%C3%A3oe-utiliza%C3%A7%C3%A3o-sustent%C3%A1velda-diversidade-biol%C3%B3gica-brasileira-probio-i/ processos-de-sele%C3%A7%C3%A3o-finalizados, see Edital PROBIO 01/2004). The Australian Honey Bee and Pollination Programme is a joint Government and industry program that invests over US$1 million a year in research on sustainable beekeeping and crop pollination. Analyses of its research investments showed that it provided positive returns, with benefit: cost ratios ranging from 2.05 to 28.61 (Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation, 2012). These numbers were based on economic, environmental and social benefits accrued, relative to a scenario without the research, for three case study projects. Potential societal benefits included the maintenance of rural livelihoods through beekeeping, and reduced impacts of chemical handling through biological control of chalkbrood. The AmericanHort Bee and Pollinator Stewardship Initiative http://americanhort.org/AmericanHort/ Shop/Be_In_The_Know/AmericanHort/Knowledge_Center/ beespoll.aspx is a similar collaborative funding scheme for the US horticulture industry. The UK Government, through its National Bee Unit (www.nationalbeeunit.com), and the US Department of Agriculture (www.ars.usda.gov/main/ site_main.htm?modecode=80-42-05-40) dedicate research funding to honey bee health and monitoring. The USDA Colony Collapse Action Plan (http://www.ars.usda.gov/is/ br/ccd/ccd_actionplan.pdf) directed $1 million USD per year from 2008-2012, which contributed to understanding the causes of Colony Collapse Disorder, and the programme was continued in 2015 (USDA, 2013; USDA, 2015; see section 2.3). The UK Insect Pollinators Initiative invested a total of £9.65 million in nine projects through a partnership of six research funders between 2009 and 2014. The research covered the health, ecology and conservation of both managed and wild pollinators, as well as crop pollination. It led to a number of important new findings, including spatial evidence for pathogen transfer between wild and managed bees (Furst et al., 2014), empirical evidence of negative interactive effects between pesticides (Gill et al. 2012), and maps of current and future pollination for the UK (Polce et al., 2013; Polce et al., 2014). The final outcomes and impact of this research effort are yet to be reported. The European Commission has funded a series of international research projects focused at least partly on pollinators (ALARM http://www.alarmproject.net/, STEP http://www.step-project.net/) and more recently on pollination as an ecosystem service (LIBERATION http:// www.fp7liberation.eu/TheLIBERATIONproject; QUESSA http://www.quessa.eu) or measuring farmland biodiversity (BIO-BIO http://www.biobio-indicator.org). Each cost several million euros. These projects either have generated, or are expected to generate, globally important findings and datasets. The ALARM project, completed in 2009, compiled the first detailed quantitative assessment of pollinator decline (Biesmeijer et al., 2006) and a Europe-wide climate change risk atlas for butterflies (Settele et al., 2008). The STEP project is continuing this work, with greater focus on mitigation. It has produced, for example, a meta-analysis on the effects of agri-environmental management for pollinators (Scheper et al. 2013) and new analyses of the pollinator decline data for Europe (Carvalheiro et al., 2013). The BioBio-project identified wild bees and bumble bees as one of 23 indicators for measuring farmland biodiversity (Herzog et al., 2013). These examples demonstrate that dedicated funding for pollinator research is effective at delivering robust, peerreviewed scientific evidence and societal benefits. 6.4.6.3.3 Centres of information, research and knowledge exchange Knowledge exchange must take place alongside research to ensure that the research answers the right questions and has a chance to be incorporated into policy and practice quickly. See Chapter 5 (section 5.2.4.7) for a discussion on co-production of knowledge across different knowledge systems. 415 6. RESPONSES TO RISKS AND OPPORTUNITIES ASSOCIATED WITH POLLINATORS AND POLLINATION
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FOREWORD The objective of the Inter
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THE METHODOLOGICAL ASSESSMENT OF SC
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478 ANNEXES
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