POLLINATORS POLLINATION AND FOOD PRODUCTION

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THE ASSESSMENT REPORT ON POLLINATORS, POLLINATION AND FOOD PRODUCTION TABLE OF CONTENTS EXECUTIVE SUMMARY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208 INTRODUCTION AND OUTLINE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .210 FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .211 1. Are economic values the same as prices? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211 2. Does economic value mean monetary value? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212 3. Does the valuation of nature and ecosystem services imply privatization or commodification? . . 212 4. Does economic value include non-use values? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212 5. How much uncertainty is associated with economic values? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212 6. Does valuation precludes conservation because the use values of natural systems are usually lower than alternativeland uses? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213 206 4. ECONOMIC VALUATION OF POLLINATOR GAINS AND LOSSES SECTION 1 – NATURE AND SIGNIFICANCE OF THE ECONOMIC VALUATION OF POLLINATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .213 1.1 On the meaning of economic valuation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213 1.1.1 Understanding the meaning of economic value: utility and scarcity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213 1.1.2 Values, costs and prices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214 1.1.3 The externalities issue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215 1.1.4 Monetary contribution versus economic value of the impact (or consequences) of an ecosystem service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216 1.1.5 The cost-benefit analysis framework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216 1.2 Linking economic values with pollination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217 1.2.1 Understanding the importance of what is at stake . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217 1.2.2 Defining hierarchies, priorities and choices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217 SECTION 2 – METHODS FOR ASSESSING THE ECONOMIC CONSEQUENCES OF POLLINATOR GAINS AND LOSSES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .217 2.1 Price Aggregation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217 2.1.1 Aggregate crop price . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217 2.1.2 Managed pollinator prices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218 2.2 Production Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219 2.2.1 Yield analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219 2.2.2 Dependence ratios . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219 2.2.3 Production function models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220 2.3 Replacement Costs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221 2.4 Surplus valuation models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222 2.5 Stated Preference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223 2.6 Measuring Pollinator Natural Capital . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225 2.6.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225 2.6.2 Measuring capital . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226 2.6.3 Pollinator assets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226 2.6.4 Pollinators influence on other assets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227 2.7 Pollinators contribution to nutritional security . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228 2.8 Valuing pollination services in barter economies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228 SECTION 3 – VALUATION ACROSS TEMPORAL AND SPATIAL SCALES . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228 3.1 The importance of scale for pollination valuation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228 3.2 Pollinator valuation across the temporal scale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230 3.2.1 Rationale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230 3.2.2 Temporal factors affecting pollination valuation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230 3.2.2.1 Price dynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230 3.2.2.2 Production effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231 3.2.2.3 Discount rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231 3.2.2.4 Availability of long-term data sets. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
THE ASSESSMENT REPORT ON POLLINATORS, POLLINATION AND FOOD PRODUCTION 3.2.3 Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232 3.2.3.1 Time series analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232 3.2.3.2 Scenarios . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233 3.3 Pollination valuation across spatial scales . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234 3.3.1 Rationale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234 3.3.2 Spatial factors affecting pollination valuation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234 3.3.2.1 Loss of data quality at large scales . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234 3.3.2.2 Landscape design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235 SECTION 4 – VALUING POLLINATION SERVICE STABILITY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .236 4.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236 4.2 Incorporating Stability into Standard Valuation Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237 4.3 Additional Methods for Assessing the Economic Value of Stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237 4.3.1 Portfolio models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238 4.3.2 Sustainable livelihood framework analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239 4.3.3 Resilience stock . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240 SECTION 5 – KNOWLEDGE GAPS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .241 5.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241 5.2 Agronomic/Ecological Knowledge Gaps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241 5.2.1 How do we measure pollination services? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241 5.2.2 What are the benefits of pollination service on the final crop output? . . . . . . . . . . . . 242 5.2.3 Interactions between pollination services and land management or other ecosystem services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243 5.2.3.1 How do management practices affect the benefits of pollination services? . . 243 5.2.3.2 How do different ecosystem services affect the benefits of pollination services? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243 5.2.3.3 How do pollination services affect the benefits of other ecosystem services? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244 5.2.4 How do variations in wild pollinator communities affect service delivery? . . . . . . . . . 245 5.2.5 How effective are artificial pollination methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245 5.3 Economic Knowledge gaps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246 5.3.1 Limited information regarding non-market or non-monetary food consumption . . . . 246 5.3.2 Limited information regarding seasonal trade in produce . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246 5.3.3 Limited information regarding production and consumption on the secondary market . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246 SECTION 6 – HOW ECONOMIC GAINS AND LOSSES IN POLLINATION CAN BE USED TO INFORM DECISION-MAKING? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .247 6.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247 6.2 Tools and methods for using economic valuation in decision-making . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247 6.3 Use of economic valuation of pollination at different stakeholder levels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247 6.3.1 Use of valuation at farmer level . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247 6.3.2 Use of valuation at producer level . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248 6.3.3 Use of valuation at industry level . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248 6.3.4 Use of valuation at government level . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248 6.4 Step-wise guide for using economic valuation for decision-making . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249 207 4. ECONOMIC VALUATION OF POLLINATOR GAINS AND LOSSES SECTION 7 – CASE STUDIES: FROM LOCAL TO GLOBAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .250 7.1 Local scale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250 7.2 National scale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251 7.3 Global scale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253 7.4 Synthesis of case studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254 7.4.1 Comparing estimates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254 7.4.2 Constraints and limits of current economic valuations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255 SECTION 8 – SYNTHESIS AND CONCLUSION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .260 REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
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POLLINATORS POLLINATION AND FOOD PRODUCTION

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