POLLINATORS POLLINATION AND FOOD PRODUCTION

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THE ASSESSMENT REPORT ON POLLINATORS, POLLINATION AND FOOD PRODUCTION TABLE 2.4.1 Bee parasites and pathogens. Fungi Host Remarks References Nosema apis Apis mellifera, A. cerana Association with BQCV virus, and with Malpighamoeba. Queens are replaced in the colony or become sterile. Colony growth reduced, lower honey yield. Nosema ceranae Apis mellifera, A. cerana, A. dorsata, A. korchevnikovi, Bombus spp. The most widespread adult bee disease. This invading pathogen is now common and seems to rapidly replace N. apis as the dominant microsporidian infection in many geographic locations. 21,22,23 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 54, 55, 56, 57 78 2. DRIVERS OF CHANGE OF POLLINATORS, POLLINATION NETWORKS AND POLLINATION Nosema bombi Bombus spp. Can cross-infect among Bombus species. Workers die soon. Colonies develop poorly. Nosema thomsoni Bombus spp. Found in different Bombus species. 31 Ascosphaera alvei, A. apis, A. flavus, A.fumigatus Apis mellifera, A.apis causes chalkbrood disease; A. flavus, A.fumigatus causes stonebrood of larvae. Ascosphaera aggregata Megachile rotundata In the Alfala leafcutter bee usually, infection levels are not exceeding 5%, however, in extreme cases infection levels above 50% were also recorded and can cause serious losses. These fungi are rather species specific, but some cross-infectivity is possible Ascosphaera torchioi Osmia lignaria So far it seems, that these fungi are rather species specific, but some cross-infectivity is possible Acrostalagmus sp. Bombus spp. Diseased queens with short hibernation 48 49 Aspergillus candidus, A.niger Bombus spp., Apis mellifera, Megachile rotundata, Nomia melanderi A.niger probably opportunistic infetions. In Oregon Aspergillus spp.have destroyed up to 53% of Nomia melanderi cells 31 21 46, 47, 49, 50 Beauveria bassiana, B.tenella Bombus spp.; Apis mellifera From worker pupae in Apis 21, 42, 51 Candida pulcherrima, Candida sp. Various yeasts. Apis mellifera, Bombus spp., Megachile rotundata, Nomia melanderi Appears as a consequence of stress. Diseased queens with short hibernation. Saccharomyces sp. infenction causes larval bloating in Nomia melanderi Cephalosporium Apis mellifera, Bombus spp. Causes typical discolorations. Serious effects in Bombus. 21, 42, 51 Chactophoma sp. Cladosporium cladosporoides Hirsutella sp. Metarhizium aniospliae Apis mellifera Causes typical discolorations. Also in combs. Bombus spp. Mycel extends beyond host body 21 Paecilomyces farinosus Apidae, Bombus spp. Pathogenic in Bombus 21 Penicillium funiculosum, P.cyclopium Phoma sp. Rhodotorumla glutinis Apis mellifera From all stages, workers, drones. 21 Apis mellifera Causes typical discolorations. In drone larvae. 21 Torulopsis sp. Apis mellifera Pathogenic yeast. In sick bees. 21 Verticilium lecanii Bombus spp. 21 Fusarium sp., Mucor sp. Megachile rotundata 21 Parasitic mites Varroa destructor Apis mellifera The most serious threat to honey bee populations worldwide, and as a serious and deadly vector for transmitting viruses Honey bee tracheal mite (Acarapis woodi) Bumblebee tracheal mite (Locustacarus buchneri) Tropilaelaps clareae and Troplilaelaps spp. Pests Apis mellifera Cause bee to have disjointed wings and be unable to fly 33 Bombus spp. Puncture trachea and suck hemolymph 34 Apis ceranae, A.dorsata, A. laboriosa, A. florea, Aips mellifera The most serious threat to honey bee in Asia 35 Wax Moths Apis mellifera The most serious pest of honeycombs. 36 Small Hive Beetle Apis mellifera Can cause colonies to abscond and can damage brood and honey when larva reproduce. Reported to also infest Bombus and stingless bee nest 21 21 21 32 36, 52,53
THE ASSESSMENT REPORT ON POLLINATORS, POLLINATION AND FOOD PRODUCTION TABLE 2.4.1 Bee parasites and pathogens. Pests Host Remarks References Bee-louse Apis mellifera No detrimental effect on adult bees, larvae can damage the appearance of comb honey. Bee eaters" (Merops sp.) Apis mellifera Problematic locally when queens are being reared 37 Chlacid wasps (Monodontomerus sp., Melittobia sp.) Checkered beetles (Trichodes apiaries, Trichodes ornatus) Flies (Cacoxenus indagator, Anthrax anthrax) Osmia sp., Megachile sp Parasiting solitary bee nests, destroying/eating the developing larvae. Melittobia acasta caused significant losses in Osmia coerulescens populations. Osmia sp., Megachile sp Commonly found in nests. Can cause losses up to 89%, but on average around 30% in managed colonies Osmia sp., Megachile sp Anthrax flies and most probably also other flies are of less concern due to low infestation rates of nests 36 38, 39, 58, 59 38, 39, 41 Mites (Chaetodactylus osmiae) Osmia sp., Megachile sp 38, 58, 59 38, 58 References [1] Benjeddou et al., 2001; [2] Benjeddou et al., 2002; [3] Allen and Ball, 1996; [4] de Miranda and Genersch, 2010; [5] Li et al., 2011; [6] Di Prisco et al., 2011; [7] Cox-Foster et al., 2007; [8] Stoltz et al., 1995; [9] Ma et al., 2010; [10] Abrol and Bhat, 1990; [11] Bailey and Fernando, 1972; [12] Ravoet et al., 2015; [13] Li et al., 2014; [14] Langridge and Mcghee, 1967; [15] Schwarz et al., 2015; [16] Schmid-Hempel and Reber, 2004; [17] Schmid-Hempel and Tognazzo, 2010; [18] Butler, 1945; [19] Plischuk et al., 2011; [20] Bailey and Ball, 1991; [21] Schmid-Hempel, 1998; [22] Li et al., 2012b; [23] Wang and Moller, 1970; [24] Fries et al., 2006; [25] Higes et al., 2006; [26] Huang et al., 2007; [27] Paxton et al., 2007; [28] Chen et al., 2008; [29] Chen et al., 2009; [30] Fries, 2010; [31] Li et al., 2012; [32] Tentcheva et al., 2004; [33] Ball, 1997; [34] Macfarlane et al., 1995; [35] Wongsiri et al., 1989; [36] Shimanuki and Knox, 2000; [37] Ball and Bailey, 1997; [38] Krunić et al., 2005; [39] Eves et al., 1980; [40] Purves et al., 1998; [41] Fairey et al., 1984; [42] Johansen, 1976; [43] Singh, 2011; [44] Keller et al., 2013; [45] Whitcomb, 2012; [46] Stephen, 1959; [47] Stephen, 1978; [48] Abrol, 2012; [49] Youssef et al., 1985; [50] James, 2008; [51] Inglis et al., 1993; [52] Hoffmann et al., 2008; [53] Greco et al., 2010; [54] Fries et al., 1996; [55] Cox-Foster et al., 2007; [56] Klee et al., 2007; [57] Plischuk et al., 2009; [58] Bosch, 1992; [59] Bosch and Kemp, 2001b. 79 2.4.1.2 Bumble bee parasites and pathogens The relative importance of the several factors involved in the decline of bumble bee populations is controversial, in particular because considerably less effort has been given by scientific research to these bees than to honey bees. The spread of pathogens during management of bumble bee colonies for pollination (see section 2.5) is highly suspected to be one of the main factors in their decline in North and South America (Williams and Osborne, 2009; Cameron et al., 2011a; Arbetman et al., 2013; Manley et al., 2015). In the frame of the red-listing of bumble bee species worldwide, a collective expertise conducted by the IUCN and a panel of experts (Cameron et al., 2011b) identified four patterns by which pathogens are a major cause of decline in bumble bees (Manley et al., 2015). As reviewed in section 2.5 and Box 2.4.1, the use of infected commercially-reared bumble bees for crop pollination has been shown to result in local spread of pathogens, or “spillover”, to wild bumble bees (Colla et al., 2006; Goka et al., 2006; Schmid-Hempel et al., 2014). In theory, such spillover can result in disease epidemics in wild populations, leading to local bumble bee declines (Otterstatter and Thomson, 2008). Studies show that commercial bumble bee colonies commonly harbor parasites and pathogens harmful to wild bees, such as microsporidia and viruses (Singh et al., 2010). This results in pathogen spillover from greenhouse raised to wild bumble bees. For example, in Canada Colla et al., (2006) showed a significantly higher prevalence of Crithidia bombi, a bumble bee pathogen, in the vicinity of greenhouses. Otterstatter and Thomson (2008) theoretically and experimentally demonstrated that during the first three months of spillover, transmission from commercial hives infected up to 20% of wild bumble bees within two km of greenhouses. Consistent with these data, (Murray et al., 2013) found the greatest pathogen prevalence in a radius of two km from greenhouses, decreasing at distances higher than ten km. 2.4.1.2.1 Viruses of bumble bees Viruses are cofactors in the decline of pollinators, and in some cases, of bumble bees. DWV, one of the most common viruses in honey bees, was demonstrated to cause wing deformities in bumble bees (Li et al., 2011; Fürst et al., 2014). ABPV, BQCV (Peng et al., 2011), and KBV were found to be equally capable of infecting different species of bumble bees (Anderson, 1991). Fast-evolving RNA viruses, known to cause severe colony losses in managed honey bee populations, deserve particular attention for their propensity to jump between host species, in particular when transmitted by pollen foraged from flowers (Singh et al., 2010). Viruses thus threaten ecologically and economically important wild pollinator communities (Manley et al., 2015). Impacts of these pathogens on bumble bees are currently unknown, but potentially could lead to severe consequences in terms of colony survival and population dynamics, as has been observed in honey bees. Immediate research efforts are needed to understand the disease dynamics and 2. DRIVERS OF CHANGE OF POLLINATORS, POLLINATION NETWORKS AND POLLINATION
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FOREWORD The objective of the Inter
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THE METHODOLOGICAL ASSESSMENT OF SC
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POLLINATORS POLLINATION AND FOOD PRODUCTION

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