POLLINATORS POLLINATION AND FOOD PRODUCTION

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THE ASSESSMENT REPORT ON POLLINATORS, POLLINATION AND FOOD PRODUCTION totemism (which differs from their folk taxonomies) divides phenomena from the foundation of the clan totem into two patrimonies and four semi-moities. Interestingly, wind and a wind-pollinated tree are in the same semi-moiety, as are various fruits and pollinators (McKnight, 1999). Uitoto communities in Colombia pay special cultural respect towards scarab beetles, important pollinators, which are used for rituals and as medicine (Gasca, 2005). The Pankararé people from the arid zones of northeast region of Brazil classify bees or “abeias” according to the behavioral aspects as “abeias-brabas” (fierce bees) and “abeias-gentle” (gentle bees), and divide bees into three ethnofamilies FIGURE 5-12 Yolngu women collecting sugarbag in Arnhem Land, northern Australia. Still photos from the video “Sugarbag Dreaming”. © Natasha Fijn. Reproduced from Fijn (2014) with permission. 298 5. BIOCULTURAL DIVERSITY, POLLINATORS AND THEIR SOCIO-CULTURAL VALUES A) A woman and two children in search of stingless bees, northeast Arnhem Land. Still from “Sugarbag Dreaming” video. © Natasha Fijn. B) The extraction of honey pots filled with bright yellow pollen from a Yirritja stingless bee nest, within a stringybark trunk. Still from “Sugarbag Dreaming” video. © Natasha C) Scooping up liquid honey using a makeshift spoon made from a stick with a frayed end. Still from “Sugarbag Dreaming” video. © Natasha
THE ASSESSMENT REPORT ON POLLINATORS, POLLINATION AND FOOD PRODUCTION depending on the presence and/or absence of the sting. Bees and wasps are protected from human exploitation by guardian spirits of plants and animals called encantados (Costa-Neto, 1998). 5.2.7.3 Mental maps and animal behaviour knowledge as management practices Knowledge in itself is a vital management practice for honey-hunters. For example, the Solega people of southern India have extensive mental maps of the location of individual trees and significant harvesting sites in the forest. Their knowledge of different migration and settling patterns of the various honey bee species of the region, and of their breeding schedules, is vital to their honeyhunting technologies (Si, 2013). Detailed knowledge of local people about behaviour of Apis spp. underpins diverse swarm capture, especially of wild swarms around the world (Marchenay, 1979). Indigenous people in Yuracaré, Cochabamba, Bolivia have detailed knowledge of the native birds that are pollinators of the forest, the trees that they pollinate, and their behaviour, which is vital to their customary forest usage (Castellón-Chávez and Rea, 2000). The Jenu-Keruba people, honey hunters in Kodagu southern India, identify 25 different micro-habitats in their forest and take advantage of four different bee species producing honey in habitats and seasons (Demps et al., 2012a). 5.2.7.4 Fire management to enhance pollination resources Vegetation fires in bear ‘grass’ (Xerophyllum tenax, in the Lilieaceae family), pollinated by pollen-eating flies (primarily members of the family Syrphidae), beetles (primarily Cosmosalia and Epicauta spp.), and small bees (Vance et al., 2004), are managed by First Nations peoples in northern America to ensure production of this grass and promote qualities suitable for contemporary traditional purposes, such as basketry that requires strong, flexible, straight leaves (Charnley and Hummel, 2011). Traditional First Nation fire practices “favored beargrass, its habitat, its cultural uses, its flowers, and presumably, associated pollinator communities as well as other species that use it for food, habitat, and nesting material” (Charnley and Hummel, 2011). Experiments on abandoned farmland in south-eastern USA have found that fire promotes pollinator visitation indirectly through increasing the density of flowering plants, in that case the forb Verbesina alternifolia, suggesting the usefulness of fire management as a tool for supporting pollination (Van Nuland et al., 2013). 5.2.7.5 Manipulation of pollination resources in different seasons and landscapes patches Diverse management practices manipulate and access different resources in different parts of the landscape at different seasons. In the Petalangan community in Indonesia, pollination is enhanced through seasonal patterns of planting and harvesting, so that bees (Apis dorsata and Apis florea) can nest up to four times a year in the sialang trees, in accord with the flowering of different crops and during the slash and burn period that opens the forest to start planting (Titinbk, 2013). In the Kerio Valley of Kenya, papaya farmers maintain hedgerows for both practical, aesthetic and cultural reasons that conserve habitat and resources for hawkmoth pollinators of this dioecious pollinator-dependent crop (Martins and Johnson, 2009). Similar patterns can be observed in relation to cacao and biodiversity in Ghana (Rice and Greenberg, 2000; Frimpong et al., 2011) and cowpea in Nigeria (Hordzi et al., 2010). Farmers in Roslagen (Sweden) protect bumble bees as important pollinators, including by restricting cutting of a tree species that flowers in early spring when other pollen- and nectar-producing plants are rare. In both locations, pollinator presence is further enhanced by the making of beehives and the management of field boundaries and mixed land that provides suitable insect habitat (Tengö and Belfrage, 2004). Producers of maracuyá (Passiflora edulis, passionfruit) in Colombia highly value pollinators, particularly black carpenter bees (Xylocopa spp.) which use dry trunks as their main habitat. Social bees (Apis mellifera and Trigona spp.) and hummingbirds are also important, and all three groups depend on proximity to forest. Farmers value the pollination from the forest highly (Calle et al., 2010). 5.2.7.6 Biotemporal indicators for management actions Seasonal “biotemporal” indicators, or “indigenous knowledge markers” trigger diverse management practices (Leonard et al., 2013; Athayde, 2015). Flowering is the main indicator of times for honey harvests among Indonesian forest communities (Césard and Heri, 2015) (Case example 5-6). Among the Kawaiwete (Kaiabi) people in the Brazilian Amazon, indicator species inform the start of the rainy and dry season. Kupeirup, a powerful female ancestral being, created crops and taught her sons how a flock of birds (a type of parrot) announces the right time to burn the fields (Silva and Athayde, 2002). The Boran people from Kenya deduce the direction and the distance to the honey nest from the greater honeyguide’s (Indicator indicator) flight pattern, perching height and calls, and reward the bird with food that is more accessible after they have opened the nests (Isack and Reyer, 1989). Interactions with honey-guides have been 299 5. BIOCULTURAL DIVERSITY, POLLINATORS AND THEIR SOCIO-CULTURAL VALUES
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FOREWORD The objective of the Inter
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478 ANNEXES
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POLLINATORS POLLINATION AND FOOD PRODUCTION

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