POLLINATORS POLLINATION AND FOOD PRODUCTION

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THE ASSESSMENT REPORT ON POLLINATORS, POLLINATION AND FOOD PRODUCTION 368 6. RESPONSES TO RISKS AND OPPORTUNITIES ASSOCIATED WITH POLLINATORS AND POLLINATION preferences and lack of clarity about concepts, can be more easily reduced, once recognised, by increasing the accuracy of information at the appropriate scale (6.4.2.2.4, 6.6). There are both synergies and trade-offs among pollinator-related responses and policy options (well established). An example of synergy is that creation and conservation of pollinator habitats can enhance wider biodiversity (well established), as well as several ecosystem services including natural pest control (established but incomplete), soil and water quality, aesthetics, and human cultural and psychological values (inconclusive). An example of a trade-off is that organic farming benefits pollinators, but in many (not all) farming systems, current organic practices usually produce lower yields (well established). This trade-off may be minimised by supporting research into ecological intensification to help enhance organic farm yields without losing the pollination benefits, or by encouraging organic farms in less-productive agricultural landscapes, where yield differences between organic and conventional agriculture are lower (inconclusive) (6.4.1.1.4, 6.4.1.1.11, 6.7). 6.1 INTRODUCTION AND OUTLINE This chapter reviews possible responses to the risks and opportunities associated with pollinators and pollination. By responses, we mean actions, interventions, policies or strategies designed to support pollinators or mitigate against pollinator decline, carried out at any scale by individuals or organisations. We first summarise what the risks and opportunities are, in section 6.2. Responses to these can be categorised in various ways. We have grouped them according to the type of response (technical, legal, economic, social/behavioural and knowledge), as explained in section 6.3. The responses are organised by sector in section 6.4, and listed in a table for each sector, with a summary of relevant information. The sectors are agriculture, pesticides, nature conservation, pollinator management & beekeeping, and urban & transport infrastructure. Pesticides are separated from agriculture in our structure because these two areas are often separated in policy. Responses that cut across these sectors, such as broad policy initiatives, research, education and knowledge exchange, are presented in section 6.4.6. For each possible response, we identify whether it is proposed, tested or established, and summarise existing knowledge about whether the response is known to achieve its objectives, with a particular focus on its effects on pollinators or pollination. Section 6.5 provides an overview of the tools and methods that have been used to understand and compare alternative responses. Section 6.6 examines the problem of uncertainty, and ways of accommodating it in decision making. Section 6.7 describes what is known about trade-offs between different possible responses. Section 6.8 identifies knowledge gaps. Appendix 6A describes the methods and approaches used to write this chapter, including how the list of considered responses was developed. Public policy has a significant role in shaping and implementing responses. The development and implementation of policy over time is often described in terms of a ‘policy cycle’ (Figure 6.1). The ways in which scientific, indigenous and local knowledge are used during the policy cycle, and incorporated into policy, are complex and much discussed (for example, Juntti et al., 2009; Owens, 2012; Dicks et al., 2014). Relevant knowledge must be provided at the correct point in the policy cycle, if it is to be useful to policy makers, but the likelihood of its actual use also depends on economics, politics, governance and decision-making processes unique to each specific context. As a general guide, the scientific, indigenous and local knowledge reviewed in Chapters 4, 5 and 6 are most useful for policy formulation, implementation and evaluation. Knowledge from Chapters 2, 3 and 5 is most useful for agenda setting, which involves identifying problems that require a policy response. Pollinators and pollination are relevant concerns in a range of policy areas, demonstrated by review of relevant legislation (Tang et al., 2007) and by discussion with policy makers (Ratamäki et al., 2011; Rose et al., 2014). The important policy areas, and the subsections of this chapter that discuss possible policy responses, are: • Agriculture and public health (section 6.4.1) • Pesticide regulation (section 6.4.2) • Biodiversity and ecosystem services (section 6.4.3, services related to food crops in 6.4.1) • Animal health and international trade (section 6.4.4) • Transport and infrastructure (section 6.4.5) • Climate change and energy (some responses reviewed in 6.4.1) A number of theoretical frameworks have been proposed to help understand what drives policy change, but there is no clear overarching framework (Sabatier and Wiebel, 2013) and no specific research has examined the development of pollinator-related policies. Drawing on the examples collated in this report, scientific knowledge can be an important
THE ASSESSMENT REPORT ON POLLINATORS, POLLINATION AND FOOD PRODUCTION driver, as in the example of the Brazilian Pollinators Initiative (see section 6.4.6.2.2). On the other hand, pollinatorrelated policy could change or be developed in response to a combination of science, public opinion and political opportunity, as has perhaps been the case for pollinator strategies developed in the UK (section 6.4.6.2.2; Dicks et al., 2015). Rose et al. (2014) suggest opportunities to ‘mainstream’ pollinator conservation and management in policy. ‘Mainstreaming’ means ensuring that impacts of policies on pollinators and pollination are considered during policy formulation and implementation in all relevant sectors (Maes et al., 2013). The Sustainable Development Goals (http://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/sustainabledevelopment-goals/), the Convention on Biological Diversity (www.cbd.int) and the Committee on World Food Security (http://www.fao.org/cfs/cfs-home/en/) are highlighted as opportunities to mainstream consideration of pollinators and pollination. The Aichi targets of the Convention on Biological Diversity (www.cbd.int/sp/targets/) also demand incorporation of pollinators and pollination into policy. Target 2 on integrating biodiversity values in strategies and processes, Target 7 on sustainable agriculture and Target 14 on restoring and safeguarding ecosystem services are particularly relevant to pollinators and pollination. FIGURE 6.1 6.2 SUMMARY OF RISKS AND OPPORTUNITIES ASSOCIATED WITH POLLINATORS AND POLLINATION We take a scientific-technical approach to risk, from a realist and individual-level perspective. This assumes that the risks are real, and they are perceived and responded to independently by individuals, with no consideration of cultural factors or social norms. From this perspective, a risk is usually understood as the probability of a specific hazard or impact taking place. A common way to evaluate a risk is to estimate both the probability and the size or scale of the impact. We have not considered sociological or psychological understandings of risk (Taylor-Gooby and Zinn, 2006). While the cultural framing of risk perceptions and responses is clearly important in the context of pollinators and pollination, we did not find any research or relevant knowledge that would allow us to evaluate its influence critically. An opportunity is a time or set of circumstances that make it possible to do something. The clearest opportunities A simplified representation of the ‘policy cycle’, the iterative decision-making process by which public policy is developed and revised. Local stakeholders, particularly local people and businesses, are involved at every stage. See text for a discussion of how scientific and local and indigenous knowledge are incorporated. Policy evaluation Agenda setting Local stakeholders Policy formulation 369 6. RESPONSES TO RISKS AND OPPORTUNITIES ASSOCIATED WITH POLLINATORS AND POLLINATION Policy implementation Policy adoption
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POLLINATORS POLLINATION AND FOOD PRODUCTION

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