POLLINATORS POLLINATION AND FOOD PRODUCTION

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THE ASSESSMENT REPORT ON POLLINATORS, POLLINATION AND FOOD PRODUCTION 104 the various drivers affecting pollinators and the pollination they provide. Below we report some case studies together with a Table and a Figure summarising the evidence base and potential pathways for combined impacts of different pressures on pollinators and pollination. 2.7.1 Case study 1: Climate change and land-use Climate changes may provide opportunities and threats for pollinators, and changes to the composition, extent and configuration of habitat in the landscape are likely to pose a challenge to many pollinator species as climate change progresses (Table 2.7.1). For instance, pollinator species currently at the limits of their climatic range may migrate with global warming into new geographic regions, thus increasing the abundance and diversity of recipient communities (Forister et al., 2010; Giannini et al., 2015; Warren et al., 2001). However, if such immigrants are highly invasive there may be an attendant risk of further ecological changes, for example through alteration of pre-existing plant-pollinator relationships, interspecific competition for food or transfer of pests and diseases (2.4, 2.5). Rates of migration are likely to differ among pollinator and plant species, raising the prospect of a spatial dislocation of plants and their pollinators; recent evidence of climate change impacts on bumble bees suggests there are adaptive limits to the capacity of this pollinator group to track climate change (Kerr et al., 2015; Schweiger et al., 2010). While pollinators with broad diets have the capacity to switch to alternative food plants, thereby maintaining populations and pollinator network structure (Kleijn and Raemakers, 2008; Valdovinos et al., 2013), other evidence suggests specific food-plant diets may underpin pollinator declines (Biesmeijer et al., 2006; Scheper et al., 2014). Habitat loss and fragmentation arising from land-use changes (e.g., habitat conversion to agriculture) may also limit compensatory species migration in the face of climate change (Forister et al., 2010; Giannini et al., 2015; Warren et al., 2001). In general, lower connectivity between habitat remnants combined with future climate shifts may reduce population sizes and increase extinction likelihoods of pollinators (Figure 2.7.1), especially species that are poor 2. DRIVERS OF CHANGE OF POLLINATORS, POLLINATION NETWORKS AND POLLINATION FIGURE 2.7.1 Evidence based and potential pathways for single and combined impacts of different pressures on pollinators and pollination. Arrows indicate pressures resulting in both either decrease or increase of pollinator number and abundance depending on the studied context. The signs in the text boxes indicate increase (+) or decrease (-) of pollinator number and abundance. Climate changes Land-use and agriculture Organic, small-scale or diverse farming crop rotation Shifting of suitable habitats for both wild plants, crops, and pollinators Pesticides, conventional intensive farming Chemicals and pollutions Higher mortality Higher susceptibility to diseases Higher mortality Diseases Higher mortality in interaction with pollution/chemicals Wild pollinators Invasive Alien Species Changing food sources Loss or gain of nest sites Replacing native species Introduced predators and diseases Managed pollinators Legitimate pollination Competition over food and nesting places with wild pollinators Source and vector of diseases Nectar robbing Native plants and crops Number and/or abundance of pollinators Increasing trend Decreasing trend Both increasing and degreasing trend
THE ASSESSMENT REPORT ON POLLINATORS, POLLINATION AND FOOD PRODUCTION TABLE 2.7.1 Combined effects of land use, agricultural practices, pesticides, pollution and climate change on the abundance and diversity of pollinators. Lack of empirical studies are given in italics together with possible explanations when necessary. Changing agricultural practices Chemicals and pollution Climate change Diseases, pests and parasites Managed pollinators Invasive species Land-use Changing agricultural practices Chemicals and pollution Agri-environment measures and organic farming increase significantly the biodiversity of pollinators in simple but not in complex landscapes. [1-4] MEDIUM EVIDENCE (few studies) Use of pesticides decreases pollinator abundance in crop far away from natural habitats, while natural habitats decreases pollinator abundance on crop lands. [5] MEDIUM EVIDENCE (few studies) Possible risk of floral strips for pollinators in agriculture exposing them to pesticides applied to crops. Pesticide use is correlated with agricultural practices. Combined effects of land-use and climate change affect rare, specialist species more than generalists[6], however less mobile species may not colonize warming habitats fast enough due to isolation of habitats [7] . Climate change effects pollinator guild [10,11] , but pollination is relatively tolerant to changes due to complementary patterns among the different flower visitor guilds. [8,9] STRONG EVIDENCE Warming and intensive farming practices reduce pollinator longevity though changes in quality and time of pollen and nectar production. [12] MEDIUM EVIDENCE (few studies) Lack of empirical evidence about how climate change may interact with the use of chemicals and pollution. Lack of empirical evidence about how diseases spread in various landscape structures. Lack of empirical evidence about how changing agricultural practices effect the spread of diseases. Pesticides increase susceptibility of bees to infections and enhance mortality due to parasites and pathogens. [110-23] STRONG EVIDENCE Heavy metal pollution however, does not affect susceptibility to parasites at least in bumblebees. [24] MEDIUM EVIDENCE (few studies) Honey bees can link fragmented habitats in highly disturbed landscape. [13] MEDIUM EVIDENCE (few studies) Managed bumblebees can become invasive depending on the available habitats. [14] STRONG EVIDENCE Intense farming practices decrease the abundance of native pollinators regardless of the presence of honey bees. [18] MEDIUM EVIDENCE (few studies) Both managed and native pollinators are effected by chemicals and pollution. However social bees (honey bees and bumblebees) might be less sensitive to chemicals and pollution. Therefore might outcompete native solitary bees in polluted environment. Invasion of alien pollinators and pollinator dependant plants are highly related to surrounding land use structure. [15-18] STRONG EVIDENCE Changing agricultural practices and changes in land use are often connected and may have the same effect. Lack of empirical evidence about interaction between invasive species and the use of chemicals or presence of pollution. 105 2. DRIVERS OF CHANGE OF POLLINATORS, POLLINATION NETWORKS AND POLLINATION Climate change Changes in temperature can facilitate the spread of new parasites (eg. N. ceranae). [25] MEDIUM EVIDENCE (few studies) Lack of empirical evidence about how climate change together with the presence of managed pollinators may affect native population. Lack of empirical evidence about the interaction between invasive species and the climate change.
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FOREWORD The objective of the Inter
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THE METHODOLOGICAL ASSESSMENT OF SC
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478 ANNEXES
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POLLINATORS POLLINATION AND FOOD PRODUCTION

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