POLLINATORS POLLINATION AND FOOD PRODUCTION

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THE ASSESSMENT REPORT ON POLLINATORS, POLLINATION AND FOOD PRODUCTION TABLE 5-4 Similarities and differences between chapter 2 drivers and peoples’ experiences of drivers identified in this chapter 324 5. BIOCULTURAL DIVERSITY, POLLINATORS AND THEIR SOCIO-CULTURAL VALUES Drivers (chapter 2) Land use and its changes (2.2) Pesticides, GMOs, veterinary medicines and pollutants (2.3) Pollinator diseases and pollinator management (2.4) Invasive species (2.5) Similarity and differences with people’s experiences of declines and associated drivers (chapter 5) Similar: Habitat loss, fragmentation and degradation (5.4.2.1) Similar: Pesticides and herbicides (5.4.2.2) Similar: Changes to and loss of bee management practices and knowledge (5.4.2.4) Some differences: Invasive species People experience these as both declines and gifts (5.4.2.3) mitigation options are relevant to specific drivers, together with the related section in Chapter 6. 5.4.4 Management and mitigation options most relevant to the agricultural sector 5.4.4.1 Food security and ecological intensification Lack of access to food, and extreme poverty, remain key concerns for many Indigenous peoples and local communities in their relationships with pollinators (Perez, 2015). “Food sovereignty” is an umbrella term for particular approaches to food security that include the ability to determine one’s own agricultural and food policies, resilience and ecological intensification. Tackling problems of hunger and malnutrition is thereby linked to the rights of peoples to define and maintain healthy and culturally appropriate food, produced through ecologically sound and sustainable methods grounded in rural livelihoods (Windfuhr and Jonsen, 2010; Sahu, 2011). Food sovereignty is relevant to pollination protection because of its connection with diversified farming systems and management practices that foster diversity and abundance of pollinators and pollination resources Kremen et al., 2012. Food sovereignty focuses on reducing global food trade and reorienting food systems around local production Most relevant responses (management and mitigation options) described in this chapter (chapter 6 relevant section) Food sovereignty and ecological intensification (6.4.1 Agriculture, agroforestry and horticultural practices) Included in other responses Livelihoods and beekeeping (6.4.4 Pollinator management and beekeeping) Biocultural conservation (6.4.3 Nature conservation) Climate change (2.6) Similar: Climate change (5.4.2.8) Included in other responses Multiple interacting threats: • Climate change and land use • Pathogens and chemicals in the environment • Bee nutrition and stress from disease and pesticides (2.7) Indirect drivers in the context of globalisation • International trade • Increasing human footprint • Shifting pesticides to less regulated countries (race to the bottom) (2.8) Different. People’s experiences are mostly of multiple interacting threats that impact widely on their values. Different. • Loss of access to traditional territories (5.4.2.5) • Changes to and loss of traditional knowledge, tenure and governance systems that protect pollination (5.4.2.6) • Pollination governance deficits (5.4.2.8) Values and frames approaches to conservation (6.4.6 Policy, research and knowledge exchange across sectors) Rights-based approaches to conservation (6.4.6) Participatory management approaches (6.4.3 Nature conservation) Biocultural conservation (6.4.3 nature conservation) Knowledge co-production (6.4.6) Strengthening traditional governance systems (6.4.3) Collaborative governance (6.4.6 Policy, research and knowledge exchange) and agro-ecological principles, opposing several of the key risks to pollinators and pollination such as habitat loss, fragmentation and degradation (4) (Wittman et al., 2010; Clapp, 2014). While diverse in its interpretations across the globe, food sovereignty acts as a powerful mobilizing frame for social movements, as well as a set of legal and quasilegal norms and practices aimed at transforming food and agriculture systems (Edelman, 2014). Food sovereignty emphasizes local initiatives, such as barter markets, that can help overcome the homogenizing effect of globalized corporate economies and trade, recognized as a driver of risks to pollination (Argumedo and Pimbert, 2010; Pirkle et al., 2015). Food sovereignty is a developing approach that shows the promise of integrating a wide range of positive opportunities, including the quality, quantity, availability, and origin of food, the identity of the producers and styles of farming that have been recognized as pollinator-friendly (van der Ploeg, 2014) (5.2.8). Food sovereignty protects peasant agriculture systems that see agriculture as co-production, i.e., the ongoing interaction, intertwinement and mutual transformation of humanity and living nature. Food sovereignty builds the capacity for enhanced agricultural productivity through social networks that join together interdependent producers and places, and enable sharing of traditional and agro-ecological knowledge, cultivating alternate circuits of exchange, and building urban-rural partnerships (Aguayo and Latta, 2015). van der Ploeg
THE ASSESSMENT REPORT ON POLLINATORS, POLLINATION AND FOOD PRODUCTION (2014) describes how these systems of peasant agriculture strengthen the complementary among species, such as between pollinators and plants, as one of their strategies for improving productivity. Interest in the potential of food sovereignty and ecological intensification to meet food and nature conservation goals is growing (FAO, 2014b) (Case example 5-18). Partnerships that support sustainable and ecological intensification have proven effective in increasing yields, with one study of 286 projects involving 37 million ha and 12.6 million chiefly small-holding farmers showing an average of 79% yield increase across diverse systems (Pretty et al., 2006; Pretty and Bharucha, 2014). Food sovereignty has recently been identified as a key strategy to overcome situations where agricultural trade liberalization leads to increased food insecurity, malnutrition, and exposure to environmental contaminants (Pirkle et al., 2015). In addition, a recent global analysis of nitrogen transfers in terms of functional relationships among crop farming, livestock breeding and human nutrition shows that slight improvements in agronomic performance in the most deficient regions (namely Maghreb, the Middle East, sub-Saharan Africa, and India) would make it possible to meet the global protein requirements with much less international trade (hence more food sovereignty), and reduce N environmental contamination (Billen et al., 2015). 5.4.5 Management and mitigation options most relevant to the nature conservation sector 5.4.5.1 Heritage listing and protection Identification, listing and protection of heritage values has been established globally since the Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage 21 was finalized in 1972 and the Convention for the Safeguarding of the Intangible Cultural Heritage 22 in 2003. Many nation-states also have their own heritage acts and lists. Several landscapes that are vital to pollinators are already protected; on the World Heritage List; opportunities exist to strengthen the protection of others that are on the Tentative List (e.g., the Tsavo Parks and Chyulu Hills Complex with many bird pollinators) 23 . Preparation of heritage lists generally involves establishment of a set of criteria that must be met in order to qualify for listing. Protection requires development and implementation of a management plan, and ongoing monitoring to ensure that values are being maintained, which includes pollinators’ values where they are recognized as part of the significant heritage. The “World Heritage List In Danger” is established when a listed site is losing its values – if the processes of degradation continue, the site will be removed. The Convention on the Intangible Cultural Heritage primarily uses knowledge to achieve its aim of safeguarding the uses, representations, expressions, knowledge and techniques that communities, groups and, in some cases, individuals, recognise as an integral part of their cultural heritage. The Representative List promotes understanding of practices, and management approaches are also listed, for example the protection of traditional knowledge of Totanac people, which includes agroforestry systems that protect pollinators and stingless beekeeping (Case example 5-19). Heritage listing and management activities conducted in ways that empower associated communities can also protect biocultural diversity (Hill et al., 2011a). 21. http://whc.unesco.org/en/about/ 22. http://www.unesco.org/culture/ich/en/convention 23. http://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/5515/ 325 5. BIOCULTURAL DIVERSITY, POLLINATORS AND THEIR SOCIO-CULTURAL VALUES CASE EXAMPLE 5-18 INDIGENOUS POLLINATORS NETWORK TO SUPPORT FOOD SOVEREIGNTY Location: global (Roy et al., 2016) Indigenous peoples around the world The Indigenous Partnership for Agrobiodiversity and Food Sovereignty established the Indigenous Pollinators Network to draw attention to the roles of traditional indigenous production systems of beekeepers, farmers and honey hunters in managing bees. The Network strengthens people to counter the marginalization process these local indigenous knowledge holders face on a daily basis. In particular, the initiative is providing inputs about how the traditional knowledge of indigenous peoples and the work of modern scientists could be linked more equitably and usefully. The network is promoting: bottom-up evidence to value indigenous agroecological knowledge on pollination; identification of good practices for enhanced livelihood opportunities; and awareness raising and knowledge exchange among indigenous communities, for example through learning routes. Case studies underway have highlighted great challenges to traditional practices that maintain pollinators and beekeeping from climate change, proliferation of commercial crops replacing forests, and indiscriminate use of agrochemicals. Many people were concerned that their food security was threatened by pollinator decline, and sought agricultural development based on strengthening their traditional production systems.
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POLLINATORS POLLINATION AND FOOD PRODUCTION

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