POLLINATORS POLLINATION AND FOOD PRODUCTION

THE ASSESSMENT REPORT ON POLLINATORS, POLLINATION AND FOOD PRODUCTION
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6. RESPONSES TO RISKS AND OPPORTUNITIES ASSOCIATED
WITH POLLINATORS AND POLLINATION
preferences and lack of clarity about concepts, can be more
easily reduced, once recognised, by increasing the accuracy
of information at the appropriate scale (6.4.2.2.4, 6.6).
There are both synergies and trade-offs among
pollinator-related responses and policy options (well
established). An example of synergy is that creation and
conservation of pollinator habitats can enhance wider
biodiversity (well established), as well as several ecosystem
services including natural pest control (established but
incomplete), soil and water quality, aesthetics, and human
cultural and psychological values (inconclusive). An example
of a trade-off is that organic farming benefits pollinators, but
in many (not all) farming systems, current organic practices
usually produce lower yields (well established). This trade-off
may be minimised by supporting research into ecological
intensification to help enhance organic farm yields without
losing the pollination benefits, or by encouraging organic
farms in less-productive agricultural landscapes, where yield
differences between organic and conventional agriculture
are lower (inconclusive) (6.4.1.1.4, 6.4.1.1.11, 6.7).
6.1 INTRODUCTION AND
OUTLINE
This chapter reviews possible responses to the risks and
opportunities associated with pollinators and pollination.
By responses, we mean actions, interventions, policies or
strategies designed to support pollinators or mitigate against
pollinator decline, carried out at any scale by individuals
or organisations.
We first summarise what the risks and opportunities are,
in section 6.2. Responses to these can be categorised in
various ways. We have grouped them according to the type
of response (technical, legal, economic, social/behavioural
and knowledge), as explained in section 6.3.
The responses are organised by sector in section 6.4, and
listed in a table for each sector, with a summary of relevant
information. The sectors are agriculture, pesticides, nature
conservation, pollinator management & beekeeping, and
urban & transport infrastructure. Pesticides are separated
from agriculture in our structure because these two areas
are often separated in policy. Responses that cut across
these sectors, such as broad policy initiatives, research,
education and knowledge exchange, are presented in
section 6.4.6. For each possible response, we identify
whether it is proposed, tested or established, and
summarise existing knowledge about whether the response
is known to achieve its objectives, with a particular focus on
its effects on pollinators or pollination.
Section 6.5 provides an overview of the tools and methods
that have been used to understand and compare alternative
responses. Section 6.6 examines the problem of uncertainty,
and ways of accommodating it in decision making.
Section 6.7 describes what is known about trade-offs
between different possible responses. Section 6.8 identifies
knowledge gaps. Appendix 6A describes the methods and
approaches used to write this chapter, including how the list
of considered responses was developed.
Public policy has a significant role in shaping and
implementing responses. The development and
implementation of policy over time is often described in
terms of a ‘policy cycle’ (Figure 6.1). The ways in which
scientific, indigenous and local knowledge are used during
the policy cycle, and incorporated into policy, are complex
and much discussed (for example, Juntti et al., 2009;
Owens, 2012; Dicks et al., 2014). Relevant knowledge must
be provided at the correct point in the policy cycle, if it is to
be useful to policy makers, but the likelihood of its actual
use also depends on economics, politics, governance and
decision-making processes unique to each specific context.
As a general guide, the scientific, indigenous and local
knowledge reviewed in Chapters 4, 5 and 6 are most useful
for policy formulation, implementation and evaluation.
Knowledge from Chapters 2, 3 and 5 is most useful for
agenda setting, which involves identifying problems that
require a policy response.
Pollinators and pollination are relevant concerns in a
range of policy areas, demonstrated by review of relevant
legislation (Tang et al., 2007) and by discussion with policy
makers (Ratamäki et al., 2011; Rose et al., 2014). The
important policy areas, and the subsections of this chapter
that discuss possible policy responses, are:
• Agriculture and public health (section 6.4.1)
• Pesticide regulation (section 6.4.2)
• Biodiversity and ecosystem services (section 6.4.3,
services related to food crops in 6.4.1)
• Animal health and international trade (section 6.4.4)
• Transport and infrastructure (section 6.4.5)
• Climate change and energy (some responses reviewed
in 6.4.1)
A number of theoretical frameworks have been proposed to
help understand what drives policy change, but there is no
clear overarching framework (Sabatier and Wiebel, 2013)
and no specific research has examined the development of
pollinator-related policies. Drawing on the examples collated
in this report, scientific knowledge can be an important