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When you think the picture was not one you saw earlier, press the ‘NEW’ button. If you have any questions please ask the experimenter. Participants were presented with photographs of same, similar and new items as were participants in the SSN task except participants had to give a ‘remember’, ‘know’ or ‘new’ response to indicate their level of awareness of their memory for the object presented, rather than giving a ‘same’, ‘similar’ or ‘new’ response. All other aspects of the procedure were exactly the same in both tasks. To enable counterbalancing the items were presented across four lists with 38 items in each list (19 negative, 19 neutral). A fifth list of items was shown only at test. At the time of debriefing 38 participants confirmed they were not expecting to have their memory tested. Three participants reported they were expecting a memory test and seven participants were not sure. Overall memory performance was comparable between these three groups therefore this distinction is not considered further. Section 2.3. Results Task A: Same, Similar, New Memory performance on the SSN task was examined by separately examining the responses given when participants were presented with the 3 different type of items (items that were same, similar or new at test) (see Table 3.6). Firstly, a 2 x 3 repeated measures ANOVA with the factors emotion 115
(negative, neutral) and response type (‘same’, ‘similar’, ‘new’) was conducted on the same items. There was a significant main effect of response type (F(1.49,34.18) = 10.85, MSE = 1.01, p < .001, partial eta 2 = .32) and a significant interaction between emotion*response type (F(2,46) = 6.25, MSE = 0.07, p < .01, partial eta 2 = .21). Post-hoc t-tests were carried out to compare the proportion of each response type by emotion. Significantly more negative than neutral items were given a ‘same’ response (t (23) = 3.57, p < .01) and less negative than neutral items were given a ‘new’ response (t (23) = -2.26, p < .05). There was no significant difference in the proportion of negative and neutral items given a ‘similar’ response [t (23) = -1.22, p = .24]. Orthogonal contrasts were conducted to further examine the main effect of response type. There were significantly more ‘same’ than ‘similar’ or ‘new’ responses given (F(1,23) = 9.88, p < .01) and significantly more ‘similar’ than ‘new’ responses given (F(1,23) = 14.57, p < .001). A repeated measures ANOVA with the factors emotion (negative, neutral) and response type (‘same’, ‘similar’, ‘new’) was then conducted on the similar items. There was a significant main effect of response type (F(1.48,34.03) = 16.69, MSE = 1.23, p < .001, partial eta 2 = .42) and a significant interaction between emotion*response type (F(2,46) = 6.27, MSE = 0.08, p < .01, partial eta 2 = .21). Post-hoc t-tests were carried out to compare the proportion of each response type by emotion. There were significantly more same responses given to negative than neutral items (t (23) = 3.28, p < .01) and significantly less new responses to negative than neutral items (t (23) = -3.22, p < .01). There was no significant difference between the proportion of similar responses given to negative than neutral items [t (23) = 0.73, p =.47]. Orthogonal contrasts were 116
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THE EMOTIONAL ENHANCEMENT OF MEMORY
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the memory effects. Surprisingly, t
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and motivation was waning. Most imp
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Meta-analysis: Experiments 6-10…
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negative, neutral or positive objec
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Figure 6.2. Summary of findings fro
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Table 3.5. Criteria for giving resp
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avoidance task ………………
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loved one could block their ability
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eport, physiological response and c
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Section 1.2. What effects do emotio
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due to external influences. In cont
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of naturally occurring emotions or
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ecause mood inductions generally re
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(e.g. Conway et al., 1994). Memory
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alternatives (Lockhart, 2000). The
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equired participants to distinguish
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een found when memory is assessed b
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peripheral elements of emotional an
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processing of the specific content
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failure to retrieve episodic memori
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effects on cognitive processes, eve
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ecollection and familiarity within
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emotional influence on memory. In t
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year (Dolcos et al., 2005). There a
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e suitable for investigating memory
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possible that having to distinguish
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of photographs of people, animals a
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Retrieval phase: Participants then
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y the ANOVA’s. These are only rep
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Table 2.1: Experiments 1 and 2: Res
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In these experiments the influence
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We found evidence of recognition me
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For the recognition test, which was
Page 70 and 71: Section 5. Experiments 2A and 2B: P
Page 72 and 73: items that had been seen previously
Page 74 and 75: Section 7. Experiment 2E: Recogniti
Page 76 and 77: Table 2.2. Experiment 2: Results of
Page 78 and 79: For the ‘know’ responses the ma
Page 80 and 81: Section 8. Experiment 2 - General D
Page 82 and 83: Presentation of stimuli in blocked
Page 84 and 85: It is possible that the act of maki
Page 86 and 87: enhancement can be influenced by re
Page 88 and 89: levels of memory between the positi
Page 90 and 91: the performance of any subsequent t
Page 92 and 93: experiment to provide a set of targ
Page 94 and 95: Experimental stimuli were presented
Page 96 and 97: Recognition performance in all thre
Page 98 and 99: Analysis of RKG responses We analys
Page 100 and 101: Further signal detection analysis o
Page 102 and 103: stimuli, which corresponded with mo
Page 104 and 105: could be generalised to the real-wo
Page 106 and 107: paradigm was first introduced by Tu
Page 108 and 109: The nature of recognition memory an
Page 110 and 111: The relation between Remember/Know/
Page 112 and 113: We proposed that a Remember respons
Page 114 and 115: to either the RKN or SSN memory tas
Page 116 and 117: change in a dimension (e.g., a ligh
Page 118 and 119: were prompted to indicate by key pr
Page 122 and 123: conducted to further analyse the ma
Page 124 and 125: interactions in the ANOVAs were fou
Page 126 and 127: Table 3.9. Same/Similar/New task: N
Page 128 and 129: Orthogonal contrasts revealed that
Page 130 and 131: Table 3.11. Remember/Know/New task:
Page 132 and 133: suitable responses were not equable
Page 134 and 135: We found that more ‘remember’ r
Page 136 and 137: say that context is easier to remem
Page 138 and 139: Levine & Bluck, 2004; Storbeck & Cl
Page 140 and 141: Figure 4.1. Examples of pairs of ne
Page 142 and 143: Familiarity i) Word frequency and w
Page 144 and 145: were not sure if there was going to
Page 146 and 147: Table 4.1. Experiment 5: Proportion
Page 148 and 149: memory for positive stimuli. These
Page 150 and 151: whether visual specificity for posi
Page 152 and 153: Figure 4.3. Examples of stimuli. St
Page 154 and 155: 0.59 (-1.65 to 2.55; 0.98) respecti
Page 156 and 157: Section 3.3. Results The data for t
Page 158 and 159: Figure 4.4. Mean average specific a
Page 160 and 161: The possibility of a response bias
Page 162 and 163: Section 4. Experiment 7: Biases in
Page 164 and 165: of an attentional encoding explanat
Page 166 and 167: esults will be found as for Experim
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Table 4.3. Mean responses (SE) for
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greater recognition for the objects
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Table 4.4. Mean average (SE) number
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eveal a significantly longer total
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difference between scenes with a ne
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of memory for positive objects was
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independent of attention, which is
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lack of a central-peripheral trade-
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to a detriment in memory for periph
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Alternative measures of memory: Ass
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associative binding (Touryan et al,
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greatly diminish or disappear with
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Factors unrelated to intrinsic emot
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faces or places (Puri & Wojciulik,
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We predict that the pattern of memo
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ackground they had seen in the stud
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component (F(2,34) = 5.45, MSe = 0.
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Associative Memory In the associati
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The number of fixations made were a
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longer total gaze duration on the e
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.54], nor on backgrounds of scenes
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the background when presented later
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Section 3.1. Introduction Section 3
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were then shown, preceded by a 20 s
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2.56, p < .001, partial eta 2 = .71
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(negative, neutral, positive) and s
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object in a scene. There was no sig
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eradication of any emotional enhanc
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possible that the emotional stimuli
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central-peripheral trade off in the
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Section 3.3. Results Results of the
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Planned contrasts revealed the impa
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component (object, background) inte
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ackground of the scene. There was n
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Section 3.4. Discussion There was e
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identify with eye movement recordin
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Table 5.7. Average ratings (standar
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emotional influence on the results
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Figure 5.7. Specific and general re
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ecognition of positive and negative
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Figure 5.9. Specific and General Re
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Section 5.3. Eye movement results T
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.01). Post-hoc Tukey’s HSD were u
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The number of fixations made on dif
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(F(1.79,5.37) = 7.12, MSe = 232535.
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emotional and neutral object [F(1,6
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Figure 5.16. Experiments 7 - 10: Av
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may be that the scenes were easier
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Chapter 6. Discussion In the final
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In chapter 4 I extended the experim
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Figure 6.3 Summary of findings from
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alternative measures of attention h
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distribution of visual attention re
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designing and conducting experiment
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contributed to the difficulty in cr
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whether these perceptual difference
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Richardson-Klavehn, 2005) with the
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High Threshold Theory (Macmillan &
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participant and the artificial prod
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References Adolphs, R. (2002). Reco
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Buchanan, T. W. (2007). Retrieval o
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Davidson, R. J. (1994). On emotion,
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Gardiner, J. M., Ramponi, C., & Ric
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James, W. (1884). What is an emotio
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Levine, L. J., & Bluck, S. (2004).
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components. Journal of Experimental
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Rowe, G., Hirsh, J. B., & Anderson,
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Talmi, D., Schimmack, U., Paterson,
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Zajonc, R. B. (1968). Attitudinal e
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Appendix 2.2. ANOVA Analyses for Ex
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Table 2.2.4. Experiment 1: Separate
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Appendix 3.2. Contamination of Retr
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Appendix 4.1 Analysis of Same, Simi
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Scene component* emotion* response
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Section 4.1.2 Analysis for Experime
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Emotion* Response type F(4,68) = 0.
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esponse F(1,17) = 0.25, New respons
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Scene component* Response type Tuke
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Same response Similar response New
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Effect ANOVA result Response type F
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Similar response New response Same
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Tukey’s post hocs: For objects Sa
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esponse F(1,17) = 1.95, Similar res
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