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effect on memory that is separate from attentional processes, with the effects of emotion on memory direct and independent from the effects on attention. In contrast, Clark-Foos & Marsh (2008) argued that the involvement of attention in the emotional enhancement of memory is dependent upon circumstances. They suggested that there may be a conscious route by which emotion enhances memory through the allocation of additional attention at encoding to negative emotional stimuli, but when this route is constrained there may be a more automatic route through which the emotional enhancement occurs. Clark- Foos & Marsh (2008) emphasised that the laws which will be found to govern the relationship between emotion and memory will greatly depend on the context of the findings and therefore may differ with different stimuli and tasks. Studies such as those described above have demonstrated that emotional stimuli can be processed with a reduced amount of attention at the time of encoding and therefore in circumstances where attentional capacity is reduced, e.g. during the completion of a concurrent task, emotional stimuli receive more complete processing than neutral stimuli and this may lead to more accurate memory for the emotional than neutral stimuli. This suggests that attention may be deployed in a different way for emotional and neutral stimuli, and this deployment may result in better memory for emotional than neutral stimuli. ii) Attention narrowing Another way in which the deployment of attention may differ between emotional and neutral stimuli could be in the spatial distribution of attention across a visual stimulus. Research investigating memory for central and 31
peripheral elements of emotional and non-emotional scenes has suggested that attention narrowing may occur with negative stimuli (Kensinger et al, 2007b). There are suggestions that whilst negative emotion leads to a narrowing of attention, positive emotion leads to a broadening of attention (Fredrickson, 2001). It has been argued that a positive mood may lead to a shift in information processing style by relaxing inhibitory control, leading to a reduced tendency to narrowly focus attention (Freitas, Katz, Azizian, & Squires, 2008; Rowe, Hirsh, & Anderson, 2007). The degree to which attention is broadened with positive emotion has been found to depend on the level of approach motivation. Low approach motivated positive affect has been associated with a greater breadth of attention than high approach motivated positive affect (Gable & Harmon-Jones, 2008). Attention narrowing at the time of first witnessing an event has been invoked to account for the phenomenon of weapon focus in memory, where there is an impairment of memory for an event in which there was a weapon present (Loftus et al., 1987). Groeger (1997) argued that attention narrowing may not be due to narrowing in the distribution of attention across an event, but a narrowing in the span of attention on different parts of an event. It may be that with attention narrowing less information can be attended to but that what is attended to is well remembered (Groeger, 1997). Other researchers have investigated memory with alternative definitions of central and peripheral elements of a scene and have found indications of the involvement of attention. Cook, Hicks, & Marsh (2007) found that increased attention toward valenced material led to a reduction in the binding of its contextual details into memory (another possible aspect of peripheral 32
Page 1 and 2: THE EMOTIONAL ENHANCEMENT OF MEMORY
Page 3 and 4: the memory effects. Surprisingly, t
Page 5 and 6: and motivation was waning. Most imp
Page 7 and 8: Meta-analysis: Experiments 6-10…
Page 9 and 10: negative, neutral or positive objec
Page 11 and 12: Figure 6.2. Summary of findings fro
Page 13 and 14: Table 3.5. Criteria for giving resp
Page 15 and 16: avoidance task ………………
Page 17 and 18: loved one could block their ability
Page 19 and 20: eport, physiological response and c
Page 21 and 22: Section 1.2. What effects do emotio
Page 23 and 24: due to external influences. In cont
Page 25 and 26: of naturally occurring emotions or
Page 27 and 28: ecause mood inductions generally re
Page 29 and 30: (e.g. Conway et al., 1994). Memory
Page 31 and 32: alternatives (Lockhart, 2000). The
Page 33 and 34: equired participants to distinguish
Page 35: een found when memory is assessed b
Page 39 and 40: processing of the specific content
Page 41 and 42: failure to retrieve episodic memori
Page 43 and 44: effects on cognitive processes, eve
Page 45 and 46: ecollection and familiarity within
Page 47 and 48: emotional influence on memory. In t
Page 49 and 50: year (Dolcos et al., 2005). There a
Page 51 and 52: e suitable for investigating memory
Page 53 and 54: possible that having to distinguish
Page 55 and 56: of photographs of people, animals a
Page 57 and 58: Retrieval phase: Participants then
Page 59: y the ANOVA’s. These are only rep
Page 62 and 63: Table 2.1: Experiments 1 and 2: Res
Page 64 and 65: In these experiments the influence
Page 66 and 67: We found evidence of recognition me
Page 68 and 69: For the recognition test, which was
Page 70 and 71: Section 5. Experiments 2A and 2B: P
Page 72 and 73: items that had been seen previously
Page 74 and 75: Section 7. Experiment 2E: Recogniti
Page 76 and 77: Table 2.2. Experiment 2: Results of
Page 78 and 79: For the ‘know’ responses the ma
Page 80 and 81: Section 8. Experiment 2 - General D
Page 82 and 83: Presentation of stimuli in blocked
Page 84 and 85: It is possible that the act of maki
Page 86 and 87:
enhancement can be influenced by re
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levels of memory between the positi
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the performance of any subsequent t
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experiment to provide a set of targ
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Experimental stimuli were presented
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Recognition performance in all thre
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Analysis of RKG responses We analys
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Further signal detection analysis o
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stimuli, which corresponded with mo
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could be generalised to the real-wo
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paradigm was first introduced by Tu
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The nature of recognition memory an
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The relation between Remember/Know/
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We proposed that a Remember respons
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to either the RKN or SSN memory tas
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change in a dimension (e.g., a ligh
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were prompted to indicate by key pr
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When you think the picture was not
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conducted to further analyse the ma
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interactions in the ANOVAs were fou
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Table 3.9. Same/Similar/New task: N
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Orthogonal contrasts revealed that
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Table 3.11. Remember/Know/New task:
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suitable responses were not equable
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We found that more ‘remember’ r
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say that context is easier to remem
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Levine & Bluck, 2004; Storbeck & Cl
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Figure 4.1. Examples of pairs of ne
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Familiarity i) Word frequency and w
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were not sure if there was going to
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Table 4.1. Experiment 5: Proportion
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memory for positive stimuli. These
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whether visual specificity for posi
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Figure 4.3. Examples of stimuli. St
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0.59 (-1.65 to 2.55; 0.98) respecti
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Section 3.3. Results The data for t
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Figure 4.4. Mean average specific a
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The possibility of a response bias
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Section 4. Experiment 7: Biases in
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of an attentional encoding explanat
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esults will be found as for Experim
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of one second was displayed before
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Table 4.3. Mean responses (SE) for
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greater recognition for the objects
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Table 4.4. Mean average (SE) number
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eveal a significantly longer total
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difference between scenes with a ne
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of memory for positive objects was
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independent of attention, which is
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lack of a central-peripheral trade-
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to a detriment in memory for periph
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Alternative measures of memory: Ass
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associative binding (Touryan et al,
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greatly diminish or disappear with
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Factors unrelated to intrinsic emot
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faces or places (Puri & Wojciulik,
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We predict that the pattern of memo
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ackground they had seen in the stud
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component (F(2,34) = 5.45, MSe = 0.
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Associative Memory In the associati
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The number of fixations made were a
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longer total gaze duration on the e
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.54], nor on backgrounds of scenes
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the background when presented later
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Section 3.1. Introduction Section 3
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were then shown, preceded by a 20 s
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2.56, p < .001, partial eta 2 = .71
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(negative, neutral, positive) and s
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object in a scene. There was no sig
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eradication of any emotional enhanc
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possible that the emotional stimuli
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central-peripheral trade off in the
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Section 3.3. Results Results of the
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Planned contrasts revealed the impa
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component (object, background) inte
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ackground of the scene. There was n
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Section 3.4. Discussion There was e
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identify with eye movement recordin
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Table 5.7. Average ratings (standar
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emotional influence on the results
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Figure 5.7. Specific and general re
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ecognition of positive and negative
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Figure 5.9. Specific and General Re
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Section 5.3. Eye movement results T
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.01). Post-hoc Tukey’s HSD were u
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The number of fixations made on dif
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(F(1.79,5.37) = 7.12, MSe = 232535.
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emotional and neutral object [F(1,6
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Figure 5.16. Experiments 7 - 10: Av
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may be that the scenes were easier
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Chapter 6. Discussion In the final
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In chapter 4 I extended the experim
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Figure 6.3 Summary of findings from
Page 272 and 273:
alternative measures of attention h
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distribution of visual attention re
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designing and conducting experiment
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contributed to the difficulty in cr
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whether these perceptual difference
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Richardson-Klavehn, 2005) with the
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High Threshold Theory (Macmillan &
Page 286 and 287:
participant and the artificial prod
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References Adolphs, R. (2002). Reco
Page 290 and 291:
Buchanan, T. W. (2007). Retrieval o
Page 292 and 293:
Davidson, R. J. (1994). On emotion,
Page 294 and 295:
Gardiner, J. M., Ramponi, C., & Ric
Page 296 and 297:
James, W. (1884). What is an emotio
Page 298 and 299:
Levine, L. J., & Bluck, S. (2004).
Page 300 and 301:
components. Journal of Experimental
Page 302 and 303:
Rowe, G., Hirsh, J. B., & Anderson,
Page 304 and 305:
Talmi, D., Schimmack, U., Paterson,
Page 306 and 307:
Zajonc, R. B. (1968). Attitudinal e
Page 308 and 309:
Appendix 2.2. ANOVA Analyses for Ex
Page 310 and 311:
Table 2.2.4. Experiment 1: Separate
Page 312 and 313:
Appendix 3.2. Contamination of Retr
Page 314 and 315:
Appendix 4.1 Analysis of Same, Simi
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Scene component* emotion* response
Page 318 and 319:
Section 4.1.2 Analysis for Experime
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Emotion* Response type F(4,68) = 0.
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esponse F(1,17) = 0.25, New respons
Page 324 and 325:
Scene component* Response type Tuke
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Same response Similar response New
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Effect ANOVA result Response type F
Page 330 and 331:
Similar response New response Same
Page 332 and 333:
Tukey’s post hocs: For objects Sa
Page 334 and 335:
esponse F(1,17) = 1.95, Similar res
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