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Rowe, G., Hirsh, J. B., & Anderson, A. K. (2007). Positive affect increases the breadth of attentional selection. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 104(1), 383-388. Salvucci, D. D., & Goldberg, J. H. (2000). Identifying fixations and saccades in eye-tracking protocols. In Proceedings of the Eye Tracking Research and Applications Symposium (pp. 71-78): New York: ACM Press. Schmidt, S. R. (1991). Can we have a distinctive theory of memory? Memory & Cognition, 19, 523-542. Schmidt, S. R. (2002). Outstanding memories: The positive and negative effects of nudes on memory. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory & Cognition, 28, 353-361. Schmidt, S. R., & Saari, B. (2007). The emotional memory effect: Differential processing or item distinctiveness? Memory & Cognition, 35(8), 1905- 1916. Schooler, J. W., & Eich, E. (2000). Memory for Emotional Events. In E. Tulving & F. I. M. Craik (Eds.), The Oxford Handbook of Memory (pp. 379-392). Oxford: Oxford University Press. Seamon, J. G., Williams, P. C., Crowley, M. J., Kim, I. J., Langer, S. A., Orne, P. J., et al. (1995). The Mere Exposure Effect Is Based on Implicit Memory - Effects of Stimulus Type, Encoding Conditions, and Number of Exposures on Recognition and Affect Judgments. Journal of Experimental Psychology-Learning Memory and Cognition, 21(3), 711- 721. 297
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THE EMOTIONAL ENHANCEMENT OF MEMORY
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the memory effects. Surprisingly, t
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and motivation was waning. Most imp
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Meta-analysis: Experiments 6-10…
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negative, neutral or positive objec
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Figure 6.2. Summary of findings fro
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Table 3.5. Criteria for giving resp
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avoidance task ………………
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loved one could block their ability
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eport, physiological response and c
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Section 1.2. What effects do emotio
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due to external influences. In cont
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of naturally occurring emotions or
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ecause mood inductions generally re
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(e.g. Conway et al., 1994). Memory
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alternatives (Lockhart, 2000). The
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equired participants to distinguish
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een found when memory is assessed b
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peripheral elements of emotional an
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processing of the specific content
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failure to retrieve episodic memori
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effects on cognitive processes, eve
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ecollection and familiarity within
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emotional influence on memory. In t
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year (Dolcos et al., 2005). There a
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e suitable for investigating memory
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possible that having to distinguish
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of photographs of people, animals a
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Retrieval phase: Participants then
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y the ANOVA’s. These are only rep
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Table 2.1: Experiments 1 and 2: Res
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In these experiments the influence
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We found evidence of recognition me
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For the recognition test, which was
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Section 5. Experiments 2A and 2B: P
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items that had been seen previously
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Section 7. Experiment 2E: Recogniti
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Table 2.2. Experiment 2: Results of
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For the ‘know’ responses the ma
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Section 8. Experiment 2 - General D
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Presentation of stimuli in blocked
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It is possible that the act of maki
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enhancement can be influenced by re
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levels of memory between the positi
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the performance of any subsequent t
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experiment to provide a set of targ
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Experimental stimuli were presented
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Recognition performance in all thre
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Analysis of RKG responses We analys
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Further signal detection analysis o
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stimuli, which corresponded with mo
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could be generalised to the real-wo
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paradigm was first introduced by Tu
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The nature of recognition memory an
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The relation between Remember/Know/
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We proposed that a Remember respons
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to either the RKN or SSN memory tas
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change in a dimension (e.g., a ligh
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were prompted to indicate by key pr
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When you think the picture was not
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conducted to further analyse the ma
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interactions in the ANOVAs were fou
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Table 3.9. Same/Similar/New task: N
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Orthogonal contrasts revealed that
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Table 3.11. Remember/Know/New task:
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suitable responses were not equable
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We found that more ‘remember’ r
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say that context is easier to remem
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Levine & Bluck, 2004; Storbeck & Cl
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Figure 4.1. Examples of pairs of ne
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Familiarity i) Word frequency and w
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were not sure if there was going to
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Table 4.1. Experiment 5: Proportion
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memory for positive stimuli. These
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whether visual specificity for posi
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Figure 4.3. Examples of stimuli. St
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0.59 (-1.65 to 2.55; 0.98) respecti
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Section 3.3. Results The data for t
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Figure 4.4. Mean average specific a
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The possibility of a response bias
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Section 4. Experiment 7: Biases in
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of an attentional encoding explanat
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esults will be found as for Experim
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of one second was displayed before
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Table 4.3. Mean responses (SE) for
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greater recognition for the objects
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Table 4.4. Mean average (SE) number
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eveal a significantly longer total
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difference between scenes with a ne
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of memory for positive objects was
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independent of attention, which is
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lack of a central-peripheral trade-
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to a detriment in memory for periph
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Alternative measures of memory: Ass
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associative binding (Touryan et al,
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greatly diminish or disappear with
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Factors unrelated to intrinsic emot
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faces or places (Puri & Wojciulik,
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We predict that the pattern of memo
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ackground they had seen in the stud
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component (F(2,34) = 5.45, MSe = 0.
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Associative Memory In the associati
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The number of fixations made were a
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longer total gaze duration on the e
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.54], nor on backgrounds of scenes
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the background when presented later
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Section 3.1. Introduction Section 3
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were then shown, preceded by a 20 s
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2.56, p < .001, partial eta 2 = .71
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(negative, neutral, positive) and s
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object in a scene. There was no sig
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eradication of any emotional enhanc
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possible that the emotional stimuli
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central-peripheral trade off in the
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Section 3.3. Results Results of the
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Planned contrasts revealed the impa
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component (object, background) inte
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ackground of the scene. There was n
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Section 3.4. Discussion There was e
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identify with eye movement recordin
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Table 5.7. Average ratings (standar
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emotional influence on the results
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Figure 5.7. Specific and general re
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ecognition of positive and negative
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Figure 5.9. Specific and General Re
Page 252 and 253: Section 5.3. Eye movement results T
Page 254 and 255: .01). Post-hoc Tukey’s HSD were u
Page 256 and 257: The number of fixations made on dif
Page 258 and 259: (F(1.79,5.37) = 7.12, MSe = 232535.
Page 260 and 261: emotional and neutral object [F(1,6
Page 262 and 263: Figure 5.16. Experiments 7 - 10: Av
Page 264 and 265: may be that the scenes were easier
Page 266 and 267: Chapter 6. Discussion In the final
Page 268 and 269: In chapter 4 I extended the experim
Page 270 and 271: Figure 6.3 Summary of findings from
Page 272 and 273: alternative measures of attention h
Page 274 and 275: distribution of visual attention re
Page 276 and 277: designing and conducting experiment
Page 278 and 279: contributed to the difficulty in cr
Page 280 and 281: whether these perceptual difference
Page 282 and 283: Richardson-Klavehn, 2005) with the
Page 284 and 285: High Threshold Theory (Macmillan &
Page 286 and 287: participant and the artificial prod
Page 288 and 289: References Adolphs, R. (2002). Reco
Page 290 and 291: Buchanan, T. W. (2007). Retrieval o
Page 292 and 293: Davidson, R. J. (1994). On emotion,
Page 294 and 295: Gardiner, J. M., Ramponi, C., & Ric
Page 296 and 297: James, W. (1884). What is an emotio
Page 298 and 299: Levine, L. J., & Bluck, S. (2004).
Page 300 and 301: components. Journal of Experimental
Page 304 and 305: Talmi, D., Schimmack, U., Paterson,
Page 306 and 307: Zajonc, R. B. (1968). Attitudinal e
Page 308 and 309: Appendix 2.2. ANOVA Analyses for Ex
Page 310 and 311: Table 2.2.4. Experiment 1: Separate
Page 312 and 313: Appendix 3.2. Contamination of Retr
Page 314 and 315: Appendix 4.1 Analysis of Same, Simi
Page 316 and 317: Scene component* emotion* response
Page 318 and 319: Section 4.1.2 Analysis for Experime
Page 320 and 321: Emotion* Response type F(4,68) = 0.
Page 322 and 323: esponse F(1,17) = 0.25, New respons
Page 324 and 325: Scene component* Response type Tuke
Page 326 and 327: Same response Similar response New
Page 328 and 329: Effect ANOVA result Response type F
Page 330 and 331: Similar response New response Same
Page 332 and 333: Tukey’s post hocs: For objects Sa
Page 334 and 335: esponse F(1,17) = 1.95, Similar res
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