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were then shown, preceded by a 20 second interval with warning of the emotion of pictures to be shown, as before. For the positive block of stimuli participants were told the pictures would be mostly pleasant. The third block of stimuli was then shown. For the neutral block of stimuli participants were told the pictures would be mostly neither pleasant nor unpleasant. The version of each scene that was presented at study was counterbalanced in the same way as for Experiment 7. The order of blocks of stimuli was counterbalanced across participants. (For results of study phase ratings see meta-analysis in Section 5.2, Chapter 5). Test This was conducted in exactly the same way as Experiment 7. Section 3.3. Results Results of Memory Data Analysis of the memory data from Experiment 9 was carried out in the same way as for experiments 6, 7 and 8 (See Table 5.3). (For statistical analysis of the responses given to different items see Appendix 5.1.) 211
Table 5.3: Mean responses (SE) for objects and backgrounds as a function of item type (same, similar or new) and emotion type (negative, neutral or positive) Item type: Same Similar New Same Similar New Response type: Negative objects Background (Negative) ‘Same’ .86 (.05) .24 (.05) .01 (.01) .42 (.05) .20 (.05) .03 (.01) ‘Similar’ .10 (.04) .66 (.06) .17 (.04) .21 (.03) .26 (.03) .16 (.02) ‘New’ .04 (.02) .10 (.04) .81 (.05) .38 (.05) .53 (.06) .81 (.02) Neutral objects Background (Neutral) ‘Same’ .68 (.06) .23 (.05) .03 (.02) .48 (.07) .21 (.04) .03 (.01) ‘Similar’ .19 (.05) .52 (.05) .08 (.03) .24 (.04) .36 (.04) .16 (.02) ‘New’ .13 (.03) .25 (.03) .89 (.05) .28 (.05) .43 (.05) .81 (.02) Positive objects Background (Positive) ‘Same’ .79 (.05) .31 (.05) .02 (.02) .51 (.08) .26 (.05) .03 (.01) ‘Similar’ .17 (.05) .56 (.06) .09 (.03) .18 (.04) .28 (.06) .16 (.02) ‘New’ .03 (.02) .13 (.02) .89 (.03) .31 (.08) .46 (.07) .81 (.02) NB. Data for new backgrounds is averaged across emotion as it was not possible for any of these backgrounds to be associated with an emotion. The influence of emotion on the two measures of memory performance was examined by conducting separate 2 x 3 repeated measures ANOVAs with the factors scene component (background, object) and emotion (negative, neutral, positive) on specific and general recognition. For specific recognition there was a significant main effect of scene component (F(1,17) = 42.16, MSe = 212
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THE EMOTIONAL ENHANCEMENT OF MEMORY
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the memory effects. Surprisingly, t
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and motivation was waning. Most imp
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Meta-analysis: Experiments 6-10…
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negative, neutral or positive objec
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Figure 6.2. Summary of findings fro
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Table 3.5. Criteria for giving resp
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avoidance task ………………
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loved one could block their ability
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eport, physiological response and c
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Section 1.2. What effects do emotio
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due to external influences. In cont
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of naturally occurring emotions or
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ecause mood inductions generally re
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(e.g. Conway et al., 1994). Memory
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alternatives (Lockhart, 2000). The
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equired participants to distinguish
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een found when memory is assessed b
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peripheral elements of emotional an
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processing of the specific content
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failure to retrieve episodic memori
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effects on cognitive processes, eve
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ecollection and familiarity within
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emotional influence on memory. In t
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year (Dolcos et al., 2005). There a
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e suitable for investigating memory
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possible that having to distinguish
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of photographs of people, animals a
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Retrieval phase: Participants then
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y the ANOVA’s. These are only rep
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Table 2.1: Experiments 1 and 2: Res
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In these experiments the influence
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We found evidence of recognition me
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For the recognition test, which was
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Section 5. Experiments 2A and 2B: P
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items that had been seen previously
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Section 7. Experiment 2E: Recogniti
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Table 2.2. Experiment 2: Results of
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For the ‘know’ responses the ma
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Section 8. Experiment 2 - General D
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Presentation of stimuli in blocked
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It is possible that the act of maki
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enhancement can be influenced by re
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levels of memory between the positi
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the performance of any subsequent t
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experiment to provide a set of targ
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Experimental stimuli were presented
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Recognition performance in all thre
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Analysis of RKG responses We analys
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Further signal detection analysis o
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stimuli, which corresponded with mo
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could be generalised to the real-wo
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paradigm was first introduced by Tu
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The nature of recognition memory an
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The relation between Remember/Know/
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We proposed that a Remember respons
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to either the RKN or SSN memory tas
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change in a dimension (e.g., a ligh
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were prompted to indicate by key pr
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When you think the picture was not
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conducted to further analyse the ma
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interactions in the ANOVAs were fou
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Table 3.9. Same/Similar/New task: N
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Orthogonal contrasts revealed that
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Table 3.11. Remember/Know/New task:
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suitable responses were not equable
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We found that more ‘remember’ r
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say that context is easier to remem
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Levine & Bluck, 2004; Storbeck & Cl
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Figure 4.1. Examples of pairs of ne
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Familiarity i) Word frequency and w
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were not sure if there was going to
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Table 4.1. Experiment 5: Proportion
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memory for positive stimuli. These
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whether visual specificity for posi
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Figure 4.3. Examples of stimuli. St
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0.59 (-1.65 to 2.55; 0.98) respecti
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Section 3.3. Results The data for t
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Figure 4.4. Mean average specific a
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The possibility of a response bias
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Section 4. Experiment 7: Biases in
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of an attentional encoding explanat
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Page 170 and 171: Table 4.3. Mean responses (SE) for
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Page 174 and 175: Table 4.4. Mean average (SE) number
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Page 180 and 181: of memory for positive objects was
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Page 188 and 189: Alternative measures of memory: Ass
Page 190 and 191: associative binding (Touryan et al,
Page 192 and 193: greatly diminish or disappear with
Page 194 and 195: Factors unrelated to intrinsic emot
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Page 198 and 199: We predict that the pattern of memo
Page 200 and 201: ackground they had seen in the stud
Page 202 and 203: component (F(2,34) = 5.45, MSe = 0.
Page 204 and 205: Associative Memory In the associati
Page 206 and 207: The number of fixations made were a
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Page 214 and 215: Section 3.1. Introduction Section 3
Page 218 and 219: 2.56, p < .001, partial eta 2 = .71
Page 220 and 221: (negative, neutral, positive) and s
Page 222 and 223: object in a scene. There was no sig
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Page 230 and 231: Section 3.3. Results Results of the
Page 232 and 233: Planned contrasts revealed the impa
Page 234 and 235: component (object, background) inte
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Page 238 and 239: Section 3.4. Discussion There was e
Page 240 and 241: identify with eye movement recordin
Page 242 and 243: Table 5.7. Average ratings (standar
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Page 246 and 247: Figure 5.7. Specific and general re
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Page 250 and 251: Figure 5.9. Specific and General Re
Page 252 and 253: Section 5.3. Eye movement results T
Page 254 and 255: .01). Post-hoc Tukey’s HSD were u
Page 256 and 257: The number of fixations made on dif
Page 258 and 259: (F(1.79,5.37) = 7.12, MSe = 232535.
Page 260 and 261: emotional and neutral object [F(1,6
Page 262 and 263: Figure 5.16. Experiments 7 - 10: Av
Page 264 and 265: may be that the scenes were easier
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Chapter 6. Discussion In the final
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In chapter 4 I extended the experim
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Figure 6.3 Summary of findings from
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alternative measures of attention h
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distribution of visual attention re
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designing and conducting experiment
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contributed to the difficulty in cr
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whether these perceptual difference
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Richardson-Klavehn, 2005) with the
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High Threshold Theory (Macmillan &
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participant and the artificial prod
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References Adolphs, R. (2002). Reco
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Buchanan, T. W. (2007). Retrieval o
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Davidson, R. J. (1994). On emotion,
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Gardiner, J. M., Ramponi, C., & Ric
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James, W. (1884). What is an emotio
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Levine, L. J., & Bluck, S. (2004).
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components. Journal of Experimental
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Rowe, G., Hirsh, J. B., & Anderson,
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Talmi, D., Schimmack, U., Paterson,
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Zajonc, R. B. (1968). Attitudinal e
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Appendix 2.2. ANOVA Analyses for Ex
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Table 2.2.4. Experiment 1: Separate
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Appendix 3.2. Contamination of Retr
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Appendix 4.1 Analysis of Same, Simi
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Scene component* emotion* response
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Section 4.1.2 Analysis for Experime
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Emotion* Response type F(4,68) = 0.
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esponse F(1,17) = 0.25, New respons
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Scene component* Response type Tuke
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Same response Similar response New
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Effect ANOVA result Response type F
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Similar response New response Same
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Tukey’s post hocs: For objects Sa
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esponse F(1,17) = 1.95, Similar res
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