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component (object, background) interacted with the different eye movement measures (See Table 5.6). The following ANOVAs were also conducted with the additional factor of object location (central or not central). Object location always interacted with scene component but as this factor did not interact with emotion these results are not discussed further. Additionally for average fixation duration and gaze duration there was a main effect of object location. The number of fixations was analysed by conducting a 2 (scene component) x 3 (emotion) repeated measures ANOVA for the factors emotion and scene component and found no significant main effect for emotion [F(2,34) = 0.48, MSe = 0.04, p = .62, partial eta 2 = .03]. There was a significant main effect for scene component (F(1,17) = 271.83, MSe = 618.74, p < .001, partial eta 2 = .94) with significantly more fixations on the object than the background. The interaction between emotion and scene component was approaching significance [F(2,34) = 3.18, MSe = 1.10, p = .05, partial eta 2 = .16]. The number of fixations made were further analysed by examining the number of fixations made on the object as a proportion of the total number of fixations on the scene (fixations on the object/fixations on the object + fixations on the background). There was an average proportion (S.E.) of .79 (.02) on scenes with a negative object, .76 (.02) on scenes with a neutral object and .76 (.02) on scenes with a positive object. A repeated measures ANOVA on this proportion with the factor emotion revealed the main effect was approaching significance [F(2,34) = 2.61, MSe = 0.01, p = .09, partial eta 2 = .13]. Planned contrasts revealed no significant difference between the proportion between scenes with an emotional and neutral object [F(1,17) = 0.76, p = .39], but the proportion was 229
significantly greater for scenes with a negative than positive object (F(1,17) = 4.78, p < .05). Table 5.6. Eye measurements on object or background scene components for stimuli of negative, neutral or positive emotions Emotion Object Background No. of Fixations Negative 7.06 (.19) 1.87 (.15) Neutral 6.72 (.24) 2.08 (.17) Positive 6.68 (.21) 2.14 (.19) Total gaze duration (ms) Negative 1405.13 (59.61) 356.32 (25.36) Neutral 1345.25 (58.15) 404.44 (33.90) Positive 1345.40 (58.04) 414.71 (34.02) Mean Fixation Duration (ms) Negative 206.16 (9.20) 203.21 (8.53) Neutral 206.70 (8.94) 199.88 (9.60) Positive 205.98 (9.07) 206.47 (10.39) The total gaze duration was analysed with a 2 (scene component) x 3 (emotion) repeated measures ANOVA with the factors emotion and scene component. There was no significant main effect of emotion [F(2,34) = 0.34, MSe = 373.25, p = .72, partial eta 2 = .02] but there was a significant main effect of scene component (F(1,17) = 186.47, MSe = 2.56 E7 , p < .001, partial eta 2 = .92) with significantly longer total gaze durations on the object than the 230
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THE EMOTIONAL ENHANCEMENT OF MEMORY
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the memory effects. Surprisingly, t
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and motivation was waning. Most imp
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Meta-analysis: Experiments 6-10…
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negative, neutral or positive objec
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Figure 6.2. Summary of findings fro
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Table 3.5. Criteria for giving resp
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avoidance task ………………
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loved one could block their ability
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eport, physiological response and c
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Section 1.2. What effects do emotio
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due to external influences. In cont
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of naturally occurring emotions or
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ecause mood inductions generally re
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(e.g. Conway et al., 1994). Memory
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alternatives (Lockhart, 2000). The
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equired participants to distinguish
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een found when memory is assessed b
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peripheral elements of emotional an
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processing of the specific content
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failure to retrieve episodic memori
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effects on cognitive processes, eve
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ecollection and familiarity within
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emotional influence on memory. In t
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year (Dolcos et al., 2005). There a
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e suitable for investigating memory
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possible that having to distinguish
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of photographs of people, animals a
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Retrieval phase: Participants then
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y the ANOVA’s. These are only rep
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Table 2.1: Experiments 1 and 2: Res
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In these experiments the influence
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We found evidence of recognition me
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For the recognition test, which was
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Section 5. Experiments 2A and 2B: P
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items that had been seen previously
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Section 7. Experiment 2E: Recogniti
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Table 2.2. Experiment 2: Results of
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For the ‘know’ responses the ma
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Section 8. Experiment 2 - General D
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Presentation of stimuli in blocked
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It is possible that the act of maki
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enhancement can be influenced by re
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levels of memory between the positi
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the performance of any subsequent t
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experiment to provide a set of targ
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Experimental stimuli were presented
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Recognition performance in all thre
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Analysis of RKG responses We analys
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Further signal detection analysis o
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stimuli, which corresponded with mo
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could be generalised to the real-wo
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paradigm was first introduced by Tu
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The nature of recognition memory an
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The relation between Remember/Know/
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We proposed that a Remember respons
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to either the RKN or SSN memory tas
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change in a dimension (e.g., a ligh
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were prompted to indicate by key pr
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When you think the picture was not
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conducted to further analyse the ma
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interactions in the ANOVAs were fou
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Table 3.9. Same/Similar/New task: N
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Orthogonal contrasts revealed that
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Table 3.11. Remember/Know/New task:
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suitable responses were not equable
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We found that more ‘remember’ r
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say that context is easier to remem
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Levine & Bluck, 2004; Storbeck & Cl
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Figure 4.1. Examples of pairs of ne
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Familiarity i) Word frequency and w
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were not sure if there was going to
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Table 4.1. Experiment 5: Proportion
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memory for positive stimuli. These
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whether visual specificity for posi
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Figure 4.3. Examples of stimuli. St
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0.59 (-1.65 to 2.55; 0.98) respecti
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Section 3.3. Results The data for t
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Figure 4.4. Mean average specific a
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The possibility of a response bias
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Section 4. Experiment 7: Biases in
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of an attentional encoding explanat
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esults will be found as for Experim
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of one second was displayed before
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Table 4.3. Mean responses (SE) for
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greater recognition for the objects
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Table 4.4. Mean average (SE) number
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eveal a significantly longer total
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difference between scenes with a ne
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of memory for positive objects was
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independent of attention, which is
Page 184 and 185: lack of a central-peripheral trade-
Page 186 and 187: to a detriment in memory for periph
Page 188 and 189: Alternative measures of memory: Ass
Page 190 and 191: associative binding (Touryan et al,
Page 192 and 193: greatly diminish or disappear with
Page 194 and 195: Factors unrelated to intrinsic emot
Page 196 and 197: faces or places (Puri & Wojciulik,
Page 198 and 199: We predict that the pattern of memo
Page 200 and 201: ackground they had seen in the stud
Page 202 and 203: component (F(2,34) = 5.45, MSe = 0.
Page 204 and 205: Associative Memory In the associati
Page 206 and 207: The number of fixations made were a
Page 208 and 209: longer total gaze duration on the e
Page 210 and 211: .54], nor on backgrounds of scenes
Page 212 and 213: the background when presented later
Page 214 and 215: Section 3.1. Introduction Section 3
Page 216 and 217: were then shown, preceded by a 20 s
Page 218 and 219: 2.56, p < .001, partial eta 2 = .71
Page 220 and 221: (negative, neutral, positive) and s
Page 222 and 223: object in a scene. There was no sig
Page 224 and 225: eradication of any emotional enhanc
Page 226 and 227: possible that the emotional stimuli
Page 228 and 229: central-peripheral trade off in the
Page 230 and 231: Section 3.3. Results Results of the
Page 232 and 233: Planned contrasts revealed the impa
Page 236 and 237: ackground of the scene. There was n
Page 238 and 239: Section 3.4. Discussion There was e
Page 240 and 241: identify with eye movement recordin
Page 242 and 243: Table 5.7. Average ratings (standar
Page 244 and 245: emotional influence on the results
Page 246 and 247: Figure 5.7. Specific and general re
Page 248 and 249: ecognition of positive and negative
Page 250 and 251: Figure 5.9. Specific and General Re
Page 252 and 253: Section 5.3. Eye movement results T
Page 254 and 255: .01). Post-hoc Tukey’s HSD were u
Page 256 and 257: The number of fixations made on dif
Page 258 and 259: (F(1.79,5.37) = 7.12, MSe = 232535.
Page 260 and 261: emotional and neutral object [F(1,6
Page 262 and 263: Figure 5.16. Experiments 7 - 10: Av
Page 264 and 265: may be that the scenes were easier
Page 266 and 267: Chapter 6. Discussion In the final
Page 268 and 269: In chapter 4 I extended the experim
Page 270 and 271: Figure 6.3 Summary of findings from
Page 272 and 273: alternative measures of attention h
Page 274 and 275: distribution of visual attention re
Page 276 and 277: designing and conducting experiment
Page 278 and 279: contributed to the difficulty in cr
Page 280 and 281: whether these perceptual difference
Page 282 and 283: Richardson-Klavehn, 2005) with the
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High Threshold Theory (Macmillan &
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participant and the artificial prod
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References Adolphs, R. (2002). Reco
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Buchanan, T. W. (2007). Retrieval o
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Davidson, R. J. (1994). On emotion,
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Gardiner, J. M., Ramponi, C., & Ric
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James, W. (1884). What is an emotio
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Levine, L. J., & Bluck, S. (2004).
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components. Journal of Experimental
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Rowe, G., Hirsh, J. B., & Anderson,
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Talmi, D., Schimmack, U., Paterson,
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Zajonc, R. B. (1968). Attitudinal e
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Appendix 2.2. ANOVA Analyses for Ex
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Table 2.2.4. Experiment 1: Separate
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Appendix 3.2. Contamination of Retr
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Appendix 4.1 Analysis of Same, Simi
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Scene component* emotion* response
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Section 4.1.2 Analysis for Experime
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Emotion* Response type F(4,68) = 0.
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esponse F(1,17) = 0.25, New respons
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Scene component* Response type Tuke
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Same response Similar response New
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Effect ANOVA result Response type F
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Similar response New response Same
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Tukey’s post hocs: For objects Sa
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esponse F(1,17) = 1.95, Similar res
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