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eradication of any emotional enhancement of memory with the presentation of stimuli in blocked lists. The pattern of results indicated that, similarly to Experiments 6, 7 and 8, the emotional enhancement for negative objects was limited to a central-peripheral trade-off in memory. Although this was not statistically significant 1 in this experiment, the pattern of results was strikingly similar to that in the previous experiments. There was no influence of emotion on attention as measured by eye movements. The lack of attentional effects in the presence of an emotional enhancement of memory is not consistent with predictions made that the attentional effects would disappear when the emotional enhancements were eradicated, because the attentional effects have disappeared even though the emotional enhancements remain. The presentation of stimuli in blocks produced profound differences in how participants distributed their attention across the scene; participants spent significantly longer looking at the background than object for each type of scene. This is in contrast to when stimuli were presented in mixed lists of negative, neutral and positive stimuli; participants then spent significantly longer looking at the object than background for each scene, with the differences significantly more pronounced for scenes with a negative object. It appears that changing the mode of presentation lessened participants’ interest in any of the objects, as well as removing any additional interest for negative objects. Alternatively, it is possible that the change of emotion across stimuli may have led to the attentional narrowing in the other experiments where 1 A meta-analysis reported at the end of this chapter compared the memory results for experiments 6-10 and found no significant differences between the experiments. Although the central-peripheral trade-off with negative stimuli is not significant in this experiment, the pattern of results is similar to that in the other experiments. Therefore, in this experiment we interpret the findings as indicating there is a central-peripheral trade-off with negative stimuli. 219
mixed lists of stimuli were used. In this experiment, the blocking of stimuli into groups of negative, neutral or positive stimuli would have prevented this change of emotion. It would be possible to analyse the existing results of Experiment 8 to consider the influence of change in emotion. However, the possibility of this explanation occurred to us late in the process of writing up this thesis and as it would take considerable time to complete this analysis this has not been included. This remains, however, a possible explanation. Related to this idea is the possibility of carry-over of emotion across emotional stimuli (cf. McKenna & Sharma, 2004; Waters et al., 2003). It is possible that there was interference in the influence of emotion when stimuli were presented in mixed lists. The slow effects of interference that have been described in the Stroop task may have had an influence on this task, although in this experiment the inter-stimulus interval greatly exceeded the brief duration shown to be required for the carry-over of emotion ((McKenna & Sharma, 2004). Despite no evidence of attention narrowing the emotional enhancement of visual memory specificity remained for negative and positive pictures. This suggests that instead of the narrowing of attention being a requirement for negative emotional visual memory specificity it is an associated but not necessary effect. These findings suggest that the positive and negative emotional visual memory specificity is not due to distinctiveness of emotional stimuli as the emotional memory effects remained even when distinctiveness was controlled. However, although presenting stimuli in blocked lists controlled relative distinctiveness within the experiment by presenting stimuli in blocked lists, it is 220
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THE EMOTIONAL ENHANCEMENT OF MEMORY
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the memory effects. Surprisingly, t
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and motivation was waning. Most imp
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Meta-analysis: Experiments 6-10…
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negative, neutral or positive objec
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Figure 6.2. Summary of findings fro
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Table 3.5. Criteria for giving resp
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avoidance task ………………
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loved one could block their ability
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eport, physiological response and c
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Section 1.2. What effects do emotio
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due to external influences. In cont
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of naturally occurring emotions or
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ecause mood inductions generally re
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(e.g. Conway et al., 1994). Memory
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alternatives (Lockhart, 2000). The
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equired participants to distinguish
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een found when memory is assessed b
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peripheral elements of emotional an
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processing of the specific content
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failure to retrieve episodic memori
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effects on cognitive processes, eve
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ecollection and familiarity within
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emotional influence on memory. In t
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year (Dolcos et al., 2005). There a
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e suitable for investigating memory
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possible that having to distinguish
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of photographs of people, animals a
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Retrieval phase: Participants then
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y the ANOVA’s. These are only rep
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Table 2.1: Experiments 1 and 2: Res
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In these experiments the influence
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We found evidence of recognition me
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For the recognition test, which was
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Section 5. Experiments 2A and 2B: P
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items that had been seen previously
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Section 7. Experiment 2E: Recogniti
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Table 2.2. Experiment 2: Results of
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For the ‘know’ responses the ma
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Section 8. Experiment 2 - General D
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Presentation of stimuli in blocked
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It is possible that the act of maki
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enhancement can be influenced by re
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levels of memory between the positi
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the performance of any subsequent t
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experiment to provide a set of targ
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Experimental stimuli were presented
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Recognition performance in all thre
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Analysis of RKG responses We analys
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Further signal detection analysis o
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stimuli, which corresponded with mo
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could be generalised to the real-wo
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paradigm was first introduced by Tu
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The nature of recognition memory an
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The relation between Remember/Know/
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We proposed that a Remember respons
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to either the RKN or SSN memory tas
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change in a dimension (e.g., a ligh
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were prompted to indicate by key pr
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When you think the picture was not
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conducted to further analyse the ma
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interactions in the ANOVAs were fou
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Table 3.9. Same/Similar/New task: N
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Orthogonal contrasts revealed that
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Table 3.11. Remember/Know/New task:
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suitable responses were not equable
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We found that more ‘remember’ r
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say that context is easier to remem
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Levine & Bluck, 2004; Storbeck & Cl
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Figure 4.1. Examples of pairs of ne
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Familiarity i) Word frequency and w
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were not sure if there was going to
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Table 4.1. Experiment 5: Proportion
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memory for positive stimuli. These
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whether visual specificity for posi
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Figure 4.3. Examples of stimuli. St
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0.59 (-1.65 to 2.55; 0.98) respecti
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Section 3.3. Results The data for t
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Figure 4.4. Mean average specific a
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The possibility of a response bias
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Section 4. Experiment 7: Biases in
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of an attentional encoding explanat
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esults will be found as for Experim
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of one second was displayed before
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Table 4.3. Mean responses (SE) for
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greater recognition for the objects
Page 174 and 175: Table 4.4. Mean average (SE) number
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Page 178 and 179: difference between scenes with a ne
Page 180 and 181: of memory for positive objects was
Page 182 and 183: independent of attention, which is
Page 184 and 185: lack of a central-peripheral trade-
Page 186 and 187: to a detriment in memory for periph
Page 188 and 189: Alternative measures of memory: Ass
Page 190 and 191: associative binding (Touryan et al,
Page 192 and 193: greatly diminish or disappear with
Page 194 and 195: Factors unrelated to intrinsic emot
Page 196 and 197: faces or places (Puri & Wojciulik,
Page 198 and 199: We predict that the pattern of memo
Page 200 and 201: ackground they had seen in the stud
Page 202 and 203: component (F(2,34) = 5.45, MSe = 0.
Page 204 and 205: Associative Memory In the associati
Page 206 and 207: The number of fixations made were a
Page 208 and 209: longer total gaze duration on the e
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Page 212 and 213: the background when presented later
Page 214 and 215: Section 3.1. Introduction Section 3
Page 216 and 217: were then shown, preceded by a 20 s
Page 218 and 219: 2.56, p < .001, partial eta 2 = .71
Page 220 and 221: (negative, neutral, positive) and s
Page 222 and 223: object in a scene. There was no sig
Page 226 and 227: possible that the emotional stimuli
Page 228 and 229: central-peripheral trade off in the
Page 230 and 231: Section 3.3. Results Results of the
Page 232 and 233: Planned contrasts revealed the impa
Page 234 and 235: component (object, background) inte
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Page 238 and 239: Section 3.4. Discussion There was e
Page 240 and 241: identify with eye movement recordin
Page 242 and 243: Table 5.7. Average ratings (standar
Page 244 and 245: emotional influence on the results
Page 246 and 247: Figure 5.7. Specific and general re
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Page 250 and 251: Figure 5.9. Specific and General Re
Page 252 and 253: Section 5.3. Eye movement results T
Page 254 and 255: .01). Post-hoc Tukey’s HSD were u
Page 256 and 257: The number of fixations made on dif
Page 258 and 259: (F(1.79,5.37) = 7.12, MSe = 232535.
Page 260 and 261: emotional and neutral object [F(1,6
Page 262 and 263: Figure 5.16. Experiments 7 - 10: Av
Page 264 and 265: may be that the scenes were easier
Page 266 and 267: Chapter 6. Discussion In the final
Page 268 and 269: In chapter 4 I extended the experim
Page 270 and 271: Figure 6.3 Summary of findings from
Page 272 and 273: alternative measures of attention h
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distribution of visual attention re
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designing and conducting experiment
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contributed to the difficulty in cr
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whether these perceptual difference
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Richardson-Klavehn, 2005) with the
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High Threshold Theory (Macmillan &
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participant and the artificial prod
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References Adolphs, R. (2002). Reco
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Buchanan, T. W. (2007). Retrieval o
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Davidson, R. J. (1994). On emotion,
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Gardiner, J. M., Ramponi, C., & Ric
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James, W. (1884). What is an emotio
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Levine, L. J., & Bluck, S. (2004).
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components. Journal of Experimental
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Rowe, G., Hirsh, J. B., & Anderson,
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Talmi, D., Schimmack, U., Paterson,
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Zajonc, R. B. (1968). Attitudinal e
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Appendix 2.2. ANOVA Analyses for Ex
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Table 2.2.4. Experiment 1: Separate
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Appendix 3.2. Contamination of Retr
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Appendix 4.1 Analysis of Same, Simi
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Scene component* emotion* response
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Section 4.1.2 Analysis for Experime
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Emotion* Response type F(4,68) = 0.
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esponse F(1,17) = 0.25, New respons
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Scene component* Response type Tuke
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Same response Similar response New
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Effect ANOVA result Response type F
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Similar response New response Same
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Tukey’s post hocs: For objects Sa
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esponse F(1,17) = 1.95, Similar res
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