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Levine & Bluck, 2004; Storbeck & Clore, 2005). Whilst there is some empirical support for this idea, for example from research into memory for autobiographical life events (e.g. Berntsen, 2002), it is not consistent with a number of studies which have shown an enhanced memory for positive items (Dewhurst & Parry, 2000; Dolcos et al., 2005; for a different interpretation see Dougal & Rotello, 2007; Ochsner, 2000). There are therefore inconsistencies in the literature on the effects that negative and positive emotions have on memory. Section 2. Experiment 5: Visual memory specificity for negative and Section 2.1. Introduction positive objects Kensinger et al. found an effect of enhanced visual memory specificity in a series of experiments (Kensinger et al., 2006, 2007a, 2007b) using the same set of stimuli. The aim of this experiment is to test the effect of either valence of emotion and establish the findings of this paradigm before beginning a series of experiments to investigate the processes underlying this effect. According to Kensinger et al. we would expect to see enhanced visual memory specificity for negative, but not positive stimuli. Section 2.2. Method Design In this experiment the effect of a factor of emotion with three levels (negative, positive, neutral) is examined on two measures of visual memory: specific recognition and general recognition. Participants were shown negative, positive and neutral stimuli in a within-participant mixed-list design. 133
Participants Twenty-four participants took part in this experiment (13 Female). All were native English-speaking University of <strong>Nottingham</strong> students (mean age = 20.71 years, SD = 1.65). Informed consent was obtained from all participants. Participants received an inconvenience allowance of £6 for their voluntary participation. The School of Psychology, University of <strong>Nottingham</strong> Ethics Committee gave approval for the study. Materials The stimuli used in this experiment were selected from the same initial set of 405 pairs of photographs of objects which were reported in Chapter 3, Experiment 4. A new set of participants rated the stimuli for emotion, as in Experiment 4 this only included negative and neutral photographs, whereas positive photographs were also included in the emotion ratings given for this experiment. The ratings of perceptual features and familiarity were taken from those given by participants for Experiment 4. A different final subset of photographs were used for the experimental stimuli in Experiment 5 than in Experiment 4. This was due to the need to ensure only one pair of each type of object was included across positive, negative and neutral stimuli. The means and standard deviations given are for the 285 pairs (95 each of negative, neutral, positive) of stimuli included in this experiment. See Figure 4.1 for an example of pairs of stimuli. 134
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THE EMOTIONAL ENHANCEMENT OF MEMORY
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the memory effects. Surprisingly, t
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and motivation was waning. Most imp
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Meta-analysis: Experiments 6-10…
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negative, neutral or positive objec
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Figure 6.2. Summary of findings fro
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Table 3.5. Criteria for giving resp
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avoidance task ………………
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loved one could block their ability
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eport, physiological response and c
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Section 1.2. What effects do emotio
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due to external influences. In cont
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of naturally occurring emotions or
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ecause mood inductions generally re
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(e.g. Conway et al., 1994). Memory
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alternatives (Lockhart, 2000). The
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equired participants to distinguish
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een found when memory is assessed b
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peripheral elements of emotional an
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processing of the specific content
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failure to retrieve episodic memori
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effects on cognitive processes, eve
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ecollection and familiarity within
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emotional influence on memory. In t
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year (Dolcos et al., 2005). There a
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e suitable for investigating memory
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possible that having to distinguish
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of photographs of people, animals a
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Retrieval phase: Participants then
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y the ANOVA’s. These are only rep
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Table 2.1: Experiments 1 and 2: Res
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In these experiments the influence
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We found evidence of recognition me
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For the recognition test, which was
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Section 5. Experiments 2A and 2B: P
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items that had been seen previously
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Section 7. Experiment 2E: Recogniti
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Table 2.2. Experiment 2: Results of
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For the ‘know’ responses the ma
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Section 8. Experiment 2 - General D
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Presentation of stimuli in blocked
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It is possible that the act of maki
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enhancement can be influenced by re
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Page 90 and 91: the performance of any subsequent t
Page 92 and 93: experiment to provide a set of targ
Page 94 and 95: Experimental stimuli were presented
Page 96 and 97: Recognition performance in all thre
Page 98 and 99: Analysis of RKG responses We analys
Page 100 and 101: Further signal detection analysis o
Page 102 and 103: stimuli, which corresponded with mo
Page 104 and 105: could be generalised to the real-wo
Page 106 and 107: paradigm was first introduced by Tu
Page 108 and 109: The nature of recognition memory an
Page 110 and 111: The relation between Remember/Know/
Page 112 and 113: We proposed that a Remember respons
Page 114 and 115: to either the RKN or SSN memory tas
Page 116 and 117: change in a dimension (e.g., a ligh
Page 118 and 119: were prompted to indicate by key pr
Page 120 and 121: When you think the picture was not
Page 122 and 123: conducted to further analyse the ma
Page 124 and 125: interactions in the ANOVAs were fou
Page 126 and 127: Table 3.9. Same/Similar/New task: N
Page 128 and 129: Orthogonal contrasts revealed that
Page 130 and 131: Table 3.11. Remember/Know/New task:
Page 132 and 133: suitable responses were not equable
Page 134 and 135: We found that more ‘remember’ r
Page 136 and 137: say that context is easier to remem
Page 140 and 141: Figure 4.1. Examples of pairs of ne
Page 142 and 143: Familiarity i) Word frequency and w
Page 144 and 145: were not sure if there was going to
Page 146 and 147: Table 4.1. Experiment 5: Proportion
Page 148 and 149: memory for positive stimuli. These
Page 150 and 151: whether visual specificity for posi
Page 152 and 153: Figure 4.3. Examples of stimuli. St
Page 154 and 155: 0.59 (-1.65 to 2.55; 0.98) respecti
Page 156 and 157: Section 3.3. Results The data for t
Page 158 and 159: Figure 4.4. Mean average specific a
Page 160 and 161: The possibility of a response bias
Page 162 and 163: Section 4. Experiment 7: Biases in
Page 164 and 165: of an attentional encoding explanat
Page 166 and 167: esults will be found as for Experim
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Page 170 and 171: Table 4.3. Mean responses (SE) for
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Page 174 and 175: Table 4.4. Mean average (SE) number
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Page 178 and 179: difference between scenes with a ne
Page 180 and 181: of memory for positive objects was
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Page 184 and 185: lack of a central-peripheral trade-
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Alternative measures of memory: Ass
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associative binding (Touryan et al,
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greatly diminish or disappear with
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Factors unrelated to intrinsic emot
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faces or places (Puri & Wojciulik,
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We predict that the pattern of memo
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ackground they had seen in the stud
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component (F(2,34) = 5.45, MSe = 0.
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Associative Memory In the associati
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The number of fixations made were a
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longer total gaze duration on the e
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.54], nor on backgrounds of scenes
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the background when presented later
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Section 3.1. Introduction Section 3
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were then shown, preceded by a 20 s
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2.56, p < .001, partial eta 2 = .71
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(negative, neutral, positive) and s
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object in a scene. There was no sig
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eradication of any emotional enhanc
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possible that the emotional stimuli
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central-peripheral trade off in the
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Section 3.3. Results Results of the
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Planned contrasts revealed the impa
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component (object, background) inte
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ackground of the scene. There was n
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Section 3.4. Discussion There was e
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identify with eye movement recordin
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Table 5.7. Average ratings (standar
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emotional influence on the results
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Figure 5.7. Specific and general re
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ecognition of positive and negative
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Figure 5.9. Specific and General Re
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Section 5.3. Eye movement results T
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.01). Post-hoc Tukey’s HSD were u
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The number of fixations made on dif
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(F(1.79,5.37) = 7.12, MSe = 232535.
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emotional and neutral object [F(1,6
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Figure 5.16. Experiments 7 - 10: Av
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may be that the scenes were easier
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Chapter 6. Discussion In the final
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In chapter 4 I extended the experim
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Figure 6.3 Summary of findings from
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alternative measures of attention h
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distribution of visual attention re
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designing and conducting experiment
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contributed to the difficulty in cr
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whether these perceptual difference
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Richardson-Klavehn, 2005) with the
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High Threshold Theory (Macmillan &
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participant and the artificial prod
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References Adolphs, R. (2002). Reco
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Buchanan, T. W. (2007). Retrieval o
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Davidson, R. J. (1994). On emotion,
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Gardiner, J. M., Ramponi, C., & Ric
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James, W. (1884). What is an emotio
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Levine, L. J., & Bluck, S. (2004).
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components. Journal of Experimental
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Rowe, G., Hirsh, J. B., & Anderson,
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Talmi, D., Schimmack, U., Paterson,
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Zajonc, R. B. (1968). Attitudinal e
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Appendix 2.2. ANOVA Analyses for Ex
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Table 2.2.4. Experiment 1: Separate
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Appendix 3.2. Contamination of Retr
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Appendix 4.1 Analysis of Same, Simi
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Scene component* emotion* response
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Section 4.1.2 Analysis for Experime
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Emotion* Response type F(4,68) = 0.
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esponse F(1,17) = 0.25, New respons
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Scene component* Response type Tuke
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Same response Similar response New
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Effect ANOVA result Response type F
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Similar response New response Same
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Tukey’s post hocs: For objects Sa
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esponse F(1,17) = 1.95, Similar res
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