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emotional influence on the results but the levels of significance differed between some of the experiments. In cases where the difference was not significant but the results were in the same direction as for other experiments we interpreted the results as being consistent with earlier experiments. To test for this interpretation we analysed the influence of emotion on specific and general recognition for central and peripheral components of a scene by conducting ANOVAs separately on specific and general recognition, as in the earlier analysis reported on these measures of memory performance, but with the addition of the between-participants factor of experiment. The analysis reported within the reports of individual experiments was of planned contrasts comparing performance with emotional vs. neutral stimuli, and then further analyses to compare performance with negative vs. positive stimuli. This analysis was consistent with the theoretical predictions that we were making in each chapter. In this meta-analysis we also conducted additional bonferroni corrected t-tests to compare recognition between negative, neutral and positive items, as all of these differences are not measured using the orthogonal planned contrasts. Section 5.2.1. Statistical Analysis The influence of experiment on specific and general recognition was analysed by conducting separate 3 (emotion) x 2 (scene component) x 5 (experiment) for the different types of memory (see figures 5.7 and 5.8). A 3 x 2 x 5 ANOVA with the repeated measures factors of emotion and scene component and between participants factor of experiment for specific recognition revealed there was a significant main effect of scene component 239
(F(1,85) = 220.26, MSe = 15.63, p < .001, partial eta 2 = .72) and a significant main effect of emotion (F(2,170) = 5.75, MSe = 0.17, p < .01, partial eta 2 = .06). The main effect of experiment was not significant [F(2,170) = 0.36, MSe = 0.02, p = .84, partial eta 2 = .02]. The interaction between scene component and experiment was not significant [F(4,85) = 1.14, MSe = 0.08, p = .34, partial eta 2 = .05], nor was the interaction between emotion and experiment [F(8,170) = 0.65, MSe = 0.02, p = .74, partial eta 2 = .03]. The interaction between scene component and emotion was significant (F(2,170) = 31.14, MSe = 0.72, p < .001, partial eta 2 = .27). The interaction between scene component*emotion* experiment was not significant [F(8,170) = 0.77, MSe = 0.02, p = .63, partial eta 2 = .04]. Planned contrasts revealed significantly greater specific recognition of backgrounds initially presented with neutral than emotional objects (F(1,89) = 5.87, p < .05) and significantly worse recognition of backgrounds initially presented with negative than positive objects (F(1,89) = 16.52, p < .001). Planned contrasts revealed significantly greater specific recognition of emotional than neutral objects (F(1,89) = 42.98, p < .001) but no significant difference between the specific recognition of positive and negative objects [F(1,89) = 1.09, p = .30]. 240
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THE EMOTIONAL ENHANCEMENT OF MEMORY
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the memory effects. Surprisingly, t
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and motivation was waning. Most imp
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Meta-analysis: Experiments 6-10…
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negative, neutral or positive objec
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Figure 6.2. Summary of findings fro
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Table 3.5. Criteria for giving resp
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avoidance task ………………
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loved one could block their ability
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eport, physiological response and c
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Section 1.2. What effects do emotio
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due to external influences. In cont
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of naturally occurring emotions or
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ecause mood inductions generally re
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(e.g. Conway et al., 1994). Memory
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alternatives (Lockhart, 2000). The
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equired participants to distinguish
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een found when memory is assessed b
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peripheral elements of emotional an
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processing of the specific content
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failure to retrieve episodic memori
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effects on cognitive processes, eve
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ecollection and familiarity within
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emotional influence on memory. In t
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year (Dolcos et al., 2005). There a
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e suitable for investigating memory
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possible that having to distinguish
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of photographs of people, animals a
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Retrieval phase: Participants then
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y the ANOVA’s. These are only rep
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Table 2.1: Experiments 1 and 2: Res
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In these experiments the influence
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We found evidence of recognition me
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For the recognition test, which was
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Section 5. Experiments 2A and 2B: P
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items that had been seen previously
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Section 7. Experiment 2E: Recogniti
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Table 2.2. Experiment 2: Results of
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For the ‘know’ responses the ma
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Section 8. Experiment 2 - General D
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Presentation of stimuli in blocked
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It is possible that the act of maki
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enhancement can be influenced by re
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levels of memory between the positi
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the performance of any subsequent t
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experiment to provide a set of targ
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Experimental stimuli were presented
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Recognition performance in all thre
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Analysis of RKG responses We analys
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Further signal detection analysis o
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stimuli, which corresponded with mo
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could be generalised to the real-wo
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paradigm was first introduced by Tu
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The nature of recognition memory an
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The relation between Remember/Know/
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We proposed that a Remember respons
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to either the RKN or SSN memory tas
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change in a dimension (e.g., a ligh
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were prompted to indicate by key pr
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When you think the picture was not
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conducted to further analyse the ma
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interactions in the ANOVAs were fou
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Table 3.9. Same/Similar/New task: N
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Orthogonal contrasts revealed that
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Table 3.11. Remember/Know/New task:
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suitable responses were not equable
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We found that more ‘remember’ r
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say that context is easier to remem
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Levine & Bluck, 2004; Storbeck & Cl
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Figure 4.1. Examples of pairs of ne
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Familiarity i) Word frequency and w
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were not sure if there was going to
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Table 4.1. Experiment 5: Proportion
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memory for positive stimuli. These
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whether visual specificity for posi
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Figure 4.3. Examples of stimuli. St
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0.59 (-1.65 to 2.55; 0.98) respecti
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Section 3.3. Results The data for t
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Figure 4.4. Mean average specific a
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The possibility of a response bias
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Section 4. Experiment 7: Biases in
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of an attentional encoding explanat
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esults will be found as for Experim
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of one second was displayed before
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Table 4.3. Mean responses (SE) for
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greater recognition for the objects
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Table 4.4. Mean average (SE) number
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eveal a significantly longer total
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difference between scenes with a ne
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of memory for positive objects was
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independent of attention, which is
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lack of a central-peripheral trade-
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to a detriment in memory for periph
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Alternative measures of memory: Ass
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associative binding (Touryan et al,
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greatly diminish or disappear with
Page 194 and 195: Factors unrelated to intrinsic emot
Page 196 and 197: faces or places (Puri & Wojciulik,
Page 198 and 199: We predict that the pattern of memo
Page 200 and 201: ackground they had seen in the stud
Page 202 and 203: component (F(2,34) = 5.45, MSe = 0.
Page 204 and 205: Associative Memory In the associati
Page 206 and 207: The number of fixations made were a
Page 208 and 209: longer total gaze duration on the e
Page 210 and 211: .54], nor on backgrounds of scenes
Page 212 and 213: the background when presented later
Page 214 and 215: Section 3.1. Introduction Section 3
Page 216 and 217: were then shown, preceded by a 20 s
Page 218 and 219: 2.56, p < .001, partial eta 2 = .71
Page 220 and 221: (negative, neutral, positive) and s
Page 222 and 223: object in a scene. There was no sig
Page 224 and 225: eradication of any emotional enhanc
Page 226 and 227: possible that the emotional stimuli
Page 228 and 229: central-peripheral trade off in the
Page 230 and 231: Section 3.3. Results Results of the
Page 232 and 233: Planned contrasts revealed the impa
Page 234 and 235: component (object, background) inte
Page 236 and 237: ackground of the scene. There was n
Page 238 and 239: Section 3.4. Discussion There was e
Page 240 and 241: identify with eye movement recordin
Page 242 and 243: Table 5.7. Average ratings (standar
Page 246 and 247: Figure 5.7. Specific and general re
Page 248 and 249: ecognition of positive and negative
Page 250 and 251: Figure 5.9. Specific and General Re
Page 252 and 253: Section 5.3. Eye movement results T
Page 254 and 255: .01). Post-hoc Tukey’s HSD were u
Page 256 and 257: The number of fixations made on dif
Page 258 and 259: (F(1.79,5.37) = 7.12, MSe = 232535.
Page 260 and 261: emotional and neutral object [F(1,6
Page 262 and 263: Figure 5.16. Experiments 7 - 10: Av
Page 264 and 265: may be that the scenes were easier
Page 266 and 267: Chapter 6. Discussion In the final
Page 268 and 269: In chapter 4 I extended the experim
Page 270 and 271: Figure 6.3 Summary of findings from
Page 272 and 273: alternative measures of attention h
Page 274 and 275: distribution of visual attention re
Page 276 and 277: designing and conducting experiment
Page 278 and 279: contributed to the difficulty in cr
Page 280 and 281: whether these perceptual difference
Page 282 and 283: Richardson-Klavehn, 2005) with the
Page 284 and 285: High Threshold Theory (Macmillan &
Page 286 and 287: participant and the artificial prod
Page 288 and 289: References Adolphs, R. (2002). Reco
Page 290 and 291: Buchanan, T. W. (2007). Retrieval o
Page 292 and 293: Davidson, R. J. (1994). On emotion,
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Gardiner, J. M., Ramponi, C., & Ric
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James, W. (1884). What is an emotio
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Levine, L. J., & Bluck, S. (2004).
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components. Journal of Experimental
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Rowe, G., Hirsh, J. B., & Anderson,
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Talmi, D., Schimmack, U., Paterson,
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Zajonc, R. B. (1968). Attitudinal e
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Appendix 2.2. ANOVA Analyses for Ex
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Table 2.2.4. Experiment 1: Separate
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Appendix 3.2. Contamination of Retr
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Appendix 4.1 Analysis of Same, Simi
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Scene component* emotion* response
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Section 4.1.2 Analysis for Experime
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Emotion* Response type F(4,68) = 0.
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esponse F(1,17) = 0.25, New respons
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Scene component* Response type Tuke
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Same response Similar response New
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Effect ANOVA result Response type F
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Similar response New response Same
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Tukey’s post hocs: For objects Sa
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esponse F(1,17) = 1.95, Similar res
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