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Abstract The influence of emotion on memory and the role of encoding and retrieval effects were examined in a series of 10 experiments. Retrieval effects were examined in the first 3 experiments by investigating the success of different memory retrieval strategies. Positive emotional enhancement of recognition was found in traditional two-alternative forced-choice recognition and a task which encouraged a nonanalytic retrieval strategy. No emotional enhancement of memory was found in a task which encouraged an analytic retrieval strategy or when a Remember / Know / Guess judgement followed recognition. The paradigm was adapted to a within-participants design but emotional enhancements of recognition were no longer found. The next 7 experiments explored encoding effects with a paradigm investigating visual specificity of memory. Participants identified whether pictures were Same / Similar / New (SSN) in comparison to those shown at study. The findings from the SSN and Remember / Know / New paradigm were compared, with negative emotional enhancement of memory found in both. Negative and positive emotional enhancement of memory for specific visual details was found, with a central-peripheral trade-off in memory with negative emotion when objects were presented on congruent neutral backgrounds. Eye movements were recorded at encoding to examine attentional effects. Attentional narrowing was found on scenes with a negative object but no attentional effects were found with positive emotion. In the last 3 experiments associative memory, implicit memory, distinctiveness of emotional stimuli and warnings of emotion were measured and manipulated but could not account for
the memory effects. Surprisingly, the emotional memory effects remained even when stimuli were blocked into emotional groups radically altering the distribution of visual attention. The implications of the results for choice of experimental stimuli, task instructions in experimental paradigms and the memory processes of encoding and retrieval are discussed.
Page 1: THE EMOTIONAL ENHANCEMENT OF MEMORY
Page 5 and 6: and motivation was waning. Most imp
Page 7 and 8: Meta-analysis: Experiments 6-10…
Page 9 and 10: negative, neutral or positive objec
Page 11 and 12: Figure 6.2. Summary of findings fro
Page 13 and 14: Table 3.5. Criteria for giving resp
Page 15 and 16: avoidance task ………………
Page 17 and 18: loved one could block their ability
Page 19 and 20: eport, physiological response and c
Page 21 and 22: Section 1.2. What effects do emotio
Page 23 and 24: due to external influences. In cont
Page 25 and 26: of naturally occurring emotions or
Page 27 and 28: ecause mood inductions generally re
Page 29 and 30: (e.g. Conway et al., 1994). Memory
Page 31 and 32: alternatives (Lockhart, 2000). The
Page 33 and 34: equired participants to distinguish
Page 35 and 36: een found when memory is assessed b
Page 37 and 38: peripheral elements of emotional an
Page 39 and 40: processing of the specific content
Page 41 and 42: failure to retrieve episodic memori
Page 43 and 44: effects on cognitive processes, eve
Page 45 and 46: ecollection and familiarity within
Page 47 and 48: emotional influence on memory. In t
Page 49 and 50: year (Dolcos et al., 2005). There a
Page 51 and 52: e suitable for investigating memory
Page 53 and 54:
possible that having to distinguish
Page 55 and 56:
of photographs of people, animals a
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Retrieval phase: Participants then
Page 59:
y the ANOVA’s. These are only rep
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Table 2.1: Experiments 1 and 2: Res
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In these experiments the influence
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We found evidence of recognition me
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For the recognition test, which was
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Section 5. Experiments 2A and 2B: P
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items that had been seen previously
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Section 7. Experiment 2E: Recogniti
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Table 2.2. Experiment 2: Results of
Page 78 and 79:
For the ‘know’ responses the ma
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Section 8. Experiment 2 - General D
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Presentation of stimuli in blocked
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It is possible that the act of maki
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enhancement can be influenced by re
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levels of memory between the positi
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the performance of any subsequent t
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experiment to provide a set of targ
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Experimental stimuli were presented
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Recognition performance in all thre
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Analysis of RKG responses We analys
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Further signal detection analysis o
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stimuli, which corresponded with mo
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could be generalised to the real-wo
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paradigm was first introduced by Tu
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The nature of recognition memory an
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The relation between Remember/Know/
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We proposed that a Remember respons
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to either the RKN or SSN memory tas
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change in a dimension (e.g., a ligh
Page 118 and 119:
were prompted to indicate by key pr
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When you think the picture was not
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conducted to further analyse the ma
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interactions in the ANOVAs were fou
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Table 3.9. Same/Similar/New task: N
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Orthogonal contrasts revealed that
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Table 3.11. Remember/Know/New task:
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suitable responses were not equable
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We found that more ‘remember’ r
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say that context is easier to remem
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Levine & Bluck, 2004; Storbeck & Cl
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Figure 4.1. Examples of pairs of ne
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Familiarity i) Word frequency and w
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were not sure if there was going to
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Table 4.1. Experiment 5: Proportion
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memory for positive stimuli. These
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whether visual specificity for posi
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Figure 4.3. Examples of stimuli. St
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0.59 (-1.65 to 2.55; 0.98) respecti
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Section 3.3. Results The data for t
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Figure 4.4. Mean average specific a
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The possibility of a response bias
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Section 4. Experiment 7: Biases in
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of an attentional encoding explanat
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esults will be found as for Experim
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of one second was displayed before
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Table 4.3. Mean responses (SE) for
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greater recognition for the objects
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Table 4.4. Mean average (SE) number
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eveal a significantly longer total
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difference between scenes with a ne
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of memory for positive objects was
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independent of attention, which is
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lack of a central-peripheral trade-
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to a detriment in memory for periph
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Alternative measures of memory: Ass
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associative binding (Touryan et al,
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greatly diminish or disappear with
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Factors unrelated to intrinsic emot
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faces or places (Puri & Wojciulik,
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We predict that the pattern of memo
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ackground they had seen in the stud
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component (F(2,34) = 5.45, MSe = 0.
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Associative Memory In the associati
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The number of fixations made were a
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longer total gaze duration on the e
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.54], nor on backgrounds of scenes
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the background when presented later
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Section 3.1. Introduction Section 3
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were then shown, preceded by a 20 s
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2.56, p < .001, partial eta 2 = .71
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(negative, neutral, positive) and s
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object in a scene. There was no sig
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eradication of any emotional enhanc
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possible that the emotional stimuli
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central-peripheral trade off in the
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Section 3.3. Results Results of the
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Planned contrasts revealed the impa
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component (object, background) inte
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ackground of the scene. There was n
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Section 3.4. Discussion There was e
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identify with eye movement recordin
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Table 5.7. Average ratings (standar
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emotional influence on the results
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Figure 5.7. Specific and general re
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ecognition of positive and negative
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Figure 5.9. Specific and General Re
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Section 5.3. Eye movement results T
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.01). Post-hoc Tukey’s HSD were u
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The number of fixations made on dif
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(F(1.79,5.37) = 7.12, MSe = 232535.
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emotional and neutral object [F(1,6
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Figure 5.16. Experiments 7 - 10: Av
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may be that the scenes were easier
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Chapter 6. Discussion In the final
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In chapter 4 I extended the experim
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Figure 6.3 Summary of findings from
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alternative measures of attention h
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distribution of visual attention re
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designing and conducting experiment
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contributed to the difficulty in cr
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whether these perceptual difference
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Richardson-Klavehn, 2005) with the
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High Threshold Theory (Macmillan &
Page 286 and 287:
participant and the artificial prod
Page 288 and 289:
References Adolphs, R. (2002). Reco
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Buchanan, T. W. (2007). Retrieval o
Page 292 and 293:
Davidson, R. J. (1994). On emotion,
Page 294 and 295:
Gardiner, J. M., Ramponi, C., & Ric
Page 296 and 297:
James, W. (1884). What is an emotio
Page 298 and 299:
Levine, L. J., & Bluck, S. (2004).
Page 300 and 301:
components. Journal of Experimental
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Rowe, G., Hirsh, J. B., & Anderson,
Page 304 and 305:
Talmi, D., Schimmack, U., Paterson,
Page 306 and 307:
Zajonc, R. B. (1968). Attitudinal e
Page 308 and 309:
Appendix 2.2. ANOVA Analyses for Ex
Page 310 and 311:
Table 2.2.4. Experiment 1: Separate
Page 312 and 313:
Appendix 3.2. Contamination of Retr
Page 314 and 315:
Appendix 4.1 Analysis of Same, Simi
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Scene component* emotion* response
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Section 4.1.2 Analysis for Experime
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Emotion* Response type F(4,68) = 0.
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esponse F(1,17) = 0.25, New respons
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Scene component* Response type Tuke
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Same response Similar response New
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Effect ANOVA result Response type F
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Similar response New response Same
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Tukey’s post hocs: For objects Sa
Page 334 and 335:
esponse F(1,17) = 1.95, Similar res
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