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the performance of any subsequent task, or whether there is something in particular about the RKG task which affects emotion’s influence on memory. We are proposing that the processing style with which information from memory is retrieved to make a recognition judgement will be affected by the knowledge that a subsequent judgement will be required. Specifically, we propose that a judgement such as Remember/Know/Guess has more specific requirements than a judgement of recognition, we argue that it would be most efficient to base the recognition and RKG judgement on the same information and so avoid the need to retrieve the same information from memory twice. Therefore, we argue the judgement of recognition and RKG will be made on the basis of the same piece of information that has been retrieved from memory. In this way, we argue that if the RKG judgement requires an analytical style of processing, this will also be used with the recognition judgement. Specifically, we predict that for straightforward recognition and recognition followed by an RKG response there will be the same pattern of results as in Experiments 1 and 2; that is a positive emotional enhancement of recognition in the former and no emotional enhancement in the latter. When recognition is followed by a confidence judgement we predict that, in line with previous research (e.g. Dahl et al., 2006) there will be emotional enhancement of recognition memory, and that this will be reflected in the ratings of confidence given. Section 1.2. Method Design 85
In this experiment the effects of a factor of emotion with three levels (negative, neutral, positive) and a factor of retrieval task with three levels (recognition memory, recognition memory followed by RKG judgement, recognition memory followed by confidence judgement) on memory performance were examined. Participants were shown negative, neutral and positive stimuli in a within-participant blocked stimuli design. Memory performance was tested using a two-alternative forced choice design to maintain consistency with Experiments 1 and 2. Participants Thirty-six participants took part in this experiment (24 female). All were native-English speaking University of <strong>Nottingham</strong> students or research staff (mean age = 23.9 years, SD = 6.02). Participants received an inconvenience allowance of £2 for their voluntary participation. Participants with a phobia of animals were excluded, as the experimental stimuli contained pictures of several animals. Materials Stimuli were 180 colour photographs selected from the IAPS database. The majority of stimuli were those from Experiments 1 and 2 but some additional photographs were selected to allow for matching on low-level visual properties between negative, neutral and positive groups of stimuli. The negative, neutral and positive groups of stimuli in this experiment were matched on low-level visual properties of visual complexity, luminance, RMS contrast, Red, Green and Blue channel saturation, see Table 3.1 (cf. Nummenmaa et al., 2006). These measures of low-level visual properties were obtained using Adobe Photoshop 7.0. There were 2 sets of stimuli used in this 86
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THE EMOTIONAL ENHANCEMENT OF MEMORY
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the memory effects. Surprisingly, t
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and motivation was waning. Most imp
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Meta-analysis: Experiments 6-10…
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negative, neutral or positive objec
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Figure 6.2. Summary of findings fro
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Table 3.5. Criteria for giving resp
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avoidance task ………………
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loved one could block their ability
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eport, physiological response and c
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Section 1.2. What effects do emotio
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due to external influences. In cont
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of naturally occurring emotions or
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ecause mood inductions generally re
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(e.g. Conway et al., 1994). Memory
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alternatives (Lockhart, 2000). The
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equired participants to distinguish
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een found when memory is assessed b
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peripheral elements of emotional an
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Page 41 and 42: failure to retrieve episodic memori
Page 43 and 44: effects on cognitive processes, eve
Page 45 and 46: ecollection and familiarity within
Page 47 and 48: emotional influence on memory. In t
Page 49 and 50: year (Dolcos et al., 2005). There a
Page 51 and 52: e suitable for investigating memory
Page 53 and 54: possible that having to distinguish
Page 55 and 56: of photographs of people, animals a
Page 57 and 58: Retrieval phase: Participants then
Page 59: y the ANOVA’s. These are only rep
Page 62 and 63: Table 2.1: Experiments 1 and 2: Res
Page 64 and 65: In these experiments the influence
Page 66 and 67: We found evidence of recognition me
Page 68 and 69: For the recognition test, which was
Page 70 and 71: Section 5. Experiments 2A and 2B: P
Page 72 and 73: items that had been seen previously
Page 74 and 75: Section 7. Experiment 2E: Recogniti
Page 76 and 77: Table 2.2. Experiment 2: Results of
Page 78 and 79: For the ‘know’ responses the ma
Page 80 and 81: Section 8. Experiment 2 - General D
Page 82 and 83: Presentation of stimuli in blocked
Page 84 and 85: It is possible that the act of maki
Page 86 and 87: enhancement can be influenced by re
Page 88 and 89: levels of memory between the positi
Page 92 and 93: experiment to provide a set of targ
Page 94 and 95: Experimental stimuli were presented
Page 96 and 97: Recognition performance in all thre
Page 98 and 99: Analysis of RKG responses We analys
Page 100 and 101: Further signal detection analysis o
Page 102 and 103: stimuli, which corresponded with mo
Page 104 and 105: could be generalised to the real-wo
Page 106 and 107: paradigm was first introduced by Tu
Page 108 and 109: The nature of recognition memory an
Page 110 and 111: The relation between Remember/Know/
Page 112 and 113: We proposed that a Remember respons
Page 114 and 115: to either the RKN or SSN memory tas
Page 116 and 117: change in a dimension (e.g., a ligh
Page 118 and 119: were prompted to indicate by key pr
Page 120 and 121: When you think the picture was not
Page 122 and 123: conducted to further analyse the ma
Page 124 and 125: interactions in the ANOVAs were fou
Page 126 and 127: Table 3.9. Same/Similar/New task: N
Page 128 and 129: Orthogonal contrasts revealed that
Page 130 and 131: Table 3.11. Remember/Know/New task:
Page 132 and 133: suitable responses were not equable
Page 134 and 135: We found that more ‘remember’ r
Page 136 and 137: say that context is easier to remem
Page 138 and 139: Levine & Bluck, 2004; Storbeck & Cl
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Figure 4.1. Examples of pairs of ne
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Familiarity i) Word frequency and w
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were not sure if there was going to
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Table 4.1. Experiment 5: Proportion
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memory for positive stimuli. These
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whether visual specificity for posi
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Figure 4.3. Examples of stimuli. St
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0.59 (-1.65 to 2.55; 0.98) respecti
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Section 3.3. Results The data for t
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Figure 4.4. Mean average specific a
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The possibility of a response bias
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Section 4. Experiment 7: Biases in
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of an attentional encoding explanat
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esults will be found as for Experim
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of one second was displayed before
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Table 4.3. Mean responses (SE) for
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greater recognition for the objects
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Table 4.4. Mean average (SE) number
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eveal a significantly longer total
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difference between scenes with a ne
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of memory for positive objects was
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independent of attention, which is
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lack of a central-peripheral trade-
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to a detriment in memory for periph
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Alternative measures of memory: Ass
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associative binding (Touryan et al,
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greatly diminish or disappear with
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Factors unrelated to intrinsic emot
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faces or places (Puri & Wojciulik,
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We predict that the pattern of memo
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ackground they had seen in the stud
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component (F(2,34) = 5.45, MSe = 0.
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Associative Memory In the associati
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The number of fixations made were a
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longer total gaze duration on the e
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.54], nor on backgrounds of scenes
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the background when presented later
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Section 3.1. Introduction Section 3
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were then shown, preceded by a 20 s
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2.56, p < .001, partial eta 2 = .71
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(negative, neutral, positive) and s
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object in a scene. There was no sig
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eradication of any emotional enhanc
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possible that the emotional stimuli
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central-peripheral trade off in the
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Section 3.3. Results Results of the
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Planned contrasts revealed the impa
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component (object, background) inte
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ackground of the scene. There was n
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Section 3.4. Discussion There was e
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identify with eye movement recordin
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Table 5.7. Average ratings (standar
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emotional influence on the results
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Figure 5.7. Specific and general re
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ecognition of positive and negative
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Figure 5.9. Specific and General Re
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Section 5.3. Eye movement results T
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.01). Post-hoc Tukey’s HSD were u
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The number of fixations made on dif
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(F(1.79,5.37) = 7.12, MSe = 232535.
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emotional and neutral object [F(1,6
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Figure 5.16. Experiments 7 - 10: Av
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may be that the scenes were easier
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Chapter 6. Discussion In the final
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In chapter 4 I extended the experim
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Figure 6.3 Summary of findings from
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alternative measures of attention h
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distribution of visual attention re
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designing and conducting experiment
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contributed to the difficulty in cr
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whether these perceptual difference
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Richardson-Klavehn, 2005) with the
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High Threshold Theory (Macmillan &
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participant and the artificial prod
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References Adolphs, R. (2002). Reco
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Buchanan, T. W. (2007). Retrieval o
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Davidson, R. J. (1994). On emotion,
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Gardiner, J. M., Ramponi, C., & Ric
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James, W. (1884). What is an emotio
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Levine, L. J., & Bluck, S. (2004).
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components. Journal of Experimental
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Rowe, G., Hirsh, J. B., & Anderson,
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Talmi, D., Schimmack, U., Paterson,
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Zajonc, R. B. (1968). Attitudinal e
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Appendix 2.2. ANOVA Analyses for Ex
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Table 2.2.4. Experiment 1: Separate
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Appendix 3.2. Contamination of Retr
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Appendix 4.1 Analysis of Same, Simi
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Scene component* emotion* response
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Section 4.1.2 Analysis for Experime
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Emotion* Response type F(4,68) = 0.
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esponse F(1,17) = 0.25, New respons
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Scene component* Response type Tuke
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Same response Similar response New
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Effect ANOVA result Response type F
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Similar response New response Same
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Tukey’s post hocs: For objects Sa
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esponse F(1,17) = 1.95, Similar res
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