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of one second was displayed before and after each picture to aid with recording of eye movements. After the practice participants’ eye movements were re- calibrated and the main experiment began. Participants were presented with 48 scenes, of which one third each of the objects were negative, neutral or positive. The same counterbalanced lists of experimental stimuli were used as in Experiment 6. (For results of study phase ratings see meta-analysis in Section 5.2, Chapter 5). Test. After an interval of 30 minutes, the test phase was conducted with exactly the same procedure as in Experiment 6. At the time of debriefing 13 participants confirmed that the memory test was a surprise and 5 participants were not sure. Overall memory performance from those who were not sure if there was going to be a memory test was comparable to that of the rest of the group. Section 4.3. Results Memory Results Analysis of the memory data from Experiment 7 was conducted in the same way as for Experiment 6 (See Table 4.3 and Figure 4.5). (For statistical analysis of the responses given to different items see Appendix 4.1.) A 2 (scene component) x 3 (emotion) repeated measures ANOVA on specific recognition revealed a significant main effect of scene component with greater specific recognition for the objects than backgrounds (F(1,17) = 22.63, MSE = 2.37, p
= .05, p 2 = .159]. Planned contrasts revealed no significant difference between recognition of backgrounds with neutral or emotional objects [F(1,17) = 0.30, p = .59], although the worse recognition for backgrounds with a negative than positive object did approach significance [F(1,17) = 3.37, p = .08]. There was significantly greater recognition of emotional than neutral objects (F(1,17) = 4.50, p
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THE EMOTIONAL ENHANCEMENT OF MEMORY
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the memory effects. Surprisingly, t
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and motivation was waning. Most imp
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Meta-analysis: Experiments 6-10…
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negative, neutral or positive objec
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Figure 6.2. Summary of findings fro
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Table 3.5. Criteria for giving resp
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avoidance task ………………
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loved one could block their ability
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eport, physiological response and c
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Section 1.2. What effects do emotio
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due to external influences. In cont
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of naturally occurring emotions or
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ecause mood inductions generally re
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(e.g. Conway et al., 1994). Memory
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alternatives (Lockhart, 2000). The
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equired participants to distinguish
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een found when memory is assessed b
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peripheral elements of emotional an
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processing of the specific content
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failure to retrieve episodic memori
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effects on cognitive processes, eve
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ecollection and familiarity within
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emotional influence on memory. In t
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year (Dolcos et al., 2005). There a
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e suitable for investigating memory
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possible that having to distinguish
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of photographs of people, animals a
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Retrieval phase: Participants then
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y the ANOVA’s. These are only rep
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Table 2.1: Experiments 1 and 2: Res
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In these experiments the influence
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We found evidence of recognition me
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For the recognition test, which was
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Section 5. Experiments 2A and 2B: P
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items that had been seen previously
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Section 7. Experiment 2E: Recogniti
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Table 2.2. Experiment 2: Results of
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For the ‘know’ responses the ma
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Section 8. Experiment 2 - General D
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Presentation of stimuli in blocked
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It is possible that the act of maki
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enhancement can be influenced by re
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levels of memory between the positi
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the performance of any subsequent t
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experiment to provide a set of targ
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Experimental stimuli were presented
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Recognition performance in all thre
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Analysis of RKG responses We analys
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Further signal detection analysis o
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stimuli, which corresponded with mo
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could be generalised to the real-wo
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paradigm was first introduced by Tu
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The nature of recognition memory an
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The relation between Remember/Know/
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We proposed that a Remember respons
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to either the RKN or SSN memory tas
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change in a dimension (e.g., a ligh
Page 118 and 119: were prompted to indicate by key pr
Page 120 and 121: When you think the picture was not
Page 122 and 123: conducted to further analyse the ma
Page 124 and 125: interactions in the ANOVAs were fou
Page 126 and 127: Table 3.9. Same/Similar/New task: N
Page 128 and 129: Orthogonal contrasts revealed that
Page 130 and 131: Table 3.11. Remember/Know/New task:
Page 132 and 133: suitable responses were not equable
Page 134 and 135: We found that more ‘remember’ r
Page 136 and 137: say that context is easier to remem
Page 138 and 139: Levine & Bluck, 2004; Storbeck & Cl
Page 140 and 141: Figure 4.1. Examples of pairs of ne
Page 142 and 143: Familiarity i) Word frequency and w
Page 144 and 145: were not sure if there was going to
Page 146 and 147: Table 4.1. Experiment 5: Proportion
Page 148 and 149: memory for positive stimuli. These
Page 150 and 151: whether visual specificity for posi
Page 152 and 153: Figure 4.3. Examples of stimuli. St
Page 154 and 155: 0.59 (-1.65 to 2.55; 0.98) respecti
Page 156 and 157: Section 3.3. Results The data for t
Page 158 and 159: Figure 4.4. Mean average specific a
Page 160 and 161: The possibility of a response bias
Page 162 and 163: Section 4. Experiment 7: Biases in
Page 164 and 165: of an attentional encoding explanat
Page 166 and 167: esults will be found as for Experim
Page 170 and 171: Table 4.3. Mean responses (SE) for
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Page 174 and 175: Table 4.4. Mean average (SE) number
Page 176 and 177: eveal a significantly longer total
Page 178 and 179: difference between scenes with a ne
Page 180 and 181: of memory for positive objects was
Page 182 and 183: independent of attention, which is
Page 184 and 185: lack of a central-peripheral trade-
Page 186 and 187: to a detriment in memory for periph
Page 188 and 189: Alternative measures of memory: Ass
Page 190 and 191: associative binding (Touryan et al,
Page 192 and 193: greatly diminish or disappear with
Page 194 and 195: Factors unrelated to intrinsic emot
Page 196 and 197: faces or places (Puri & Wojciulik,
Page 198 and 199: We predict that the pattern of memo
Page 200 and 201: ackground they had seen in the stud
Page 202 and 203: component (F(2,34) = 5.45, MSe = 0.
Page 204 and 205: Associative Memory In the associati
Page 206 and 207: The number of fixations made were a
Page 208 and 209: longer total gaze duration on the e
Page 210 and 211: .54], nor on backgrounds of scenes
Page 212 and 213: the background when presented later
Page 214 and 215: Section 3.1. Introduction Section 3
Page 216 and 217: were then shown, preceded by a 20 s
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2.56, p < .001, partial eta 2 = .71
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(negative, neutral, positive) and s
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object in a scene. There was no sig
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eradication of any emotional enhanc
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possible that the emotional stimuli
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central-peripheral trade off in the
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Section 3.3. Results Results of the
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Planned contrasts revealed the impa
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component (object, background) inte
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ackground of the scene. There was n
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Section 3.4. Discussion There was e
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identify with eye movement recordin
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Table 5.7. Average ratings (standar
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emotional influence on the results
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Figure 5.7. Specific and general re
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ecognition of positive and negative
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Figure 5.9. Specific and General Re
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Section 5.3. Eye movement results T
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.01). Post-hoc Tukey’s HSD were u
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The number of fixations made on dif
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(F(1.79,5.37) = 7.12, MSe = 232535.
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emotional and neutral object [F(1,6
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Figure 5.16. Experiments 7 - 10: Av
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may be that the scenes were easier
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Chapter 6. Discussion In the final
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In chapter 4 I extended the experim
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Figure 6.3 Summary of findings from
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alternative measures of attention h
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distribution of visual attention re
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designing and conducting experiment
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contributed to the difficulty in cr
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whether these perceptual difference
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Richardson-Klavehn, 2005) with the
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High Threshold Theory (Macmillan &
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participant and the artificial prod
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References Adolphs, R. (2002). Reco
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Buchanan, T. W. (2007). Retrieval o
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Davidson, R. J. (1994). On emotion,
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Gardiner, J. M., Ramponi, C., & Ric
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James, W. (1884). What is an emotio
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Levine, L. J., & Bluck, S. (2004).
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components. Journal of Experimental
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Rowe, G., Hirsh, J. B., & Anderson,
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Talmi, D., Schimmack, U., Paterson,
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Zajonc, R. B. (1968). Attitudinal e
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Appendix 2.2. ANOVA Analyses for Ex
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Table 2.2.4. Experiment 1: Separate
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Appendix 3.2. Contamination of Retr
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Appendix 4.1 Analysis of Same, Simi
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Scene component* emotion* response
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Section 4.1.2 Analysis for Experime
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Emotion* Response type F(4,68) = 0.
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esponse F(1,17) = 0.25, New respons
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Scene component* Response type Tuke
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Same response Similar response New
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Effect ANOVA result Response type F
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Similar response New response Same
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Tukey’s post hocs: For objects Sa
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esponse F(1,17) = 1.95, Similar res
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