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The number of fixations made were also analysed by examining the number of fixations made on the object as a proportion of the total number of fixations on the scene (fixations on the object/fixations on the object + fixations on the background). There was an average proportion (S.E.) of .81 (.02) on scenes with a negative object, .74 (.02) on scenes with a neutral object and .76 (.02) on scenes with a positive object. A repeated measures ANOVA on this proportion with the factor emotion revealed a significant main effect (F(2,34) = 6.57, MSe = 0.02, p < .01, partial eta 2 = .28). Planned contrasts revealed this proportion was significantly greater for scenes with an emotional than neutral object (F(1,17) = 8.86, p < .01) and significantly greater for scenes with a negative than positive object (F(1,17) = 5.01, p < .05). 201
Table 5.2: Eye measurements on object or background scene components for scenes with a neutral background and negative, neutral or positive object Emotion Object Background No. of Fixations Negative 6.40 (0.20) 1.56 (0.14) Neutral 5.81 (0.20) 2.12 (0.16) Positive 6.07 (0.20) 1.96 (0.14) Total gaze duration (ms) Negative 1512.36 (44.83) 372.71 (28.21) Neutral 1371.46 (48.67) 494.24 (33.00) Positive 1414.86 (41.74) 458.68 (35.22) Mean fixation Duration (ms) Negative 245.95 (11.91) 259.74 (12.67) Neutral 247.35 (11.92) 260.29 (16.55) Positive 244.87 (11.36) 248.12 (10.01) Repeated measures ANOVA analysing the total gaze duration for the factors emotion and scene component found no significant main effect for emotion [F(2,34) = 0.83, MSe = 854.79, p = .44, partial eta 2 = .05] but there was a significant main effect for scene component (F(1,17) = 346.16, MSe = 2.65 E7 , p < .001, partial eta 2 = .95) with significantly longer total gaze durations on the object than the background of the scene. There was also a significant interaction between emotion and scene component (F(2,34) = 5.76, MSe = 163149.41, p < .01, partial eta 2 = .25). Planned contrasts revealed significantly 202
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THE EMOTIONAL ENHANCEMENT OF MEMORY
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the memory effects. Surprisingly, t
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and motivation was waning. Most imp
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Meta-analysis: Experiments 6-10…
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negative, neutral or positive objec
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Figure 6.2. Summary of findings fro
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Table 3.5. Criteria for giving resp
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avoidance task ………………
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loved one could block their ability
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eport, physiological response and c
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Section 1.2. What effects do emotio
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due to external influences. In cont
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of naturally occurring emotions or
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ecause mood inductions generally re
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(e.g. Conway et al., 1994). Memory
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alternatives (Lockhart, 2000). The
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equired participants to distinguish
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een found when memory is assessed b
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peripheral elements of emotional an
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processing of the specific content
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failure to retrieve episodic memori
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effects on cognitive processes, eve
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ecollection and familiarity within
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emotional influence on memory. In t
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year (Dolcos et al., 2005). There a
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e suitable for investigating memory
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possible that having to distinguish
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of photographs of people, animals a
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Retrieval phase: Participants then
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y the ANOVA’s. These are only rep
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Table 2.1: Experiments 1 and 2: Res
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In these experiments the influence
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We found evidence of recognition me
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For the recognition test, which was
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Section 5. Experiments 2A and 2B: P
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items that had been seen previously
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Section 7. Experiment 2E: Recogniti
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Table 2.2. Experiment 2: Results of
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For the ‘know’ responses the ma
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Section 8. Experiment 2 - General D
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Presentation of stimuli in blocked
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It is possible that the act of maki
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enhancement can be influenced by re
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levels of memory between the positi
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the performance of any subsequent t
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experiment to provide a set of targ
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Experimental stimuli were presented
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Recognition performance in all thre
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Analysis of RKG responses We analys
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Further signal detection analysis o
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stimuli, which corresponded with mo
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could be generalised to the real-wo
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paradigm was first introduced by Tu
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The nature of recognition memory an
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The relation between Remember/Know/
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We proposed that a Remember respons
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to either the RKN or SSN memory tas
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change in a dimension (e.g., a ligh
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were prompted to indicate by key pr
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When you think the picture was not
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conducted to further analyse the ma
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interactions in the ANOVAs were fou
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Table 3.9. Same/Similar/New task: N
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Orthogonal contrasts revealed that
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Table 3.11. Remember/Know/New task:
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suitable responses were not equable
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We found that more ‘remember’ r
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say that context is easier to remem
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Levine & Bluck, 2004; Storbeck & Cl
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Figure 4.1. Examples of pairs of ne
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Familiarity i) Word frequency and w
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were not sure if there was going to
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Table 4.1. Experiment 5: Proportion
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memory for positive stimuli. These
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whether visual specificity for posi
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Figure 4.3. Examples of stimuli. St
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0.59 (-1.65 to 2.55; 0.98) respecti
Page 156 and 157: Section 3.3. Results The data for t
Page 158 and 159: Figure 4.4. Mean average specific a
Page 160 and 161: The possibility of a response bias
Page 162 and 163: Section 4. Experiment 7: Biases in
Page 164 and 165: of an attentional encoding explanat
Page 166 and 167: esults will be found as for Experim
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Page 170 and 171: Table 4.3. Mean responses (SE) for
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Page 174 and 175: Table 4.4. Mean average (SE) number
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Page 178 and 179: difference between scenes with a ne
Page 180 and 181: of memory for positive objects was
Page 182 and 183: independent of attention, which is
Page 184 and 185: lack of a central-peripheral trade-
Page 186 and 187: to a detriment in memory for periph
Page 188 and 189: Alternative measures of memory: Ass
Page 190 and 191: associative binding (Touryan et al,
Page 192 and 193: greatly diminish or disappear with
Page 194 and 195: Factors unrelated to intrinsic emot
Page 196 and 197: faces or places (Puri & Wojciulik,
Page 198 and 199: We predict that the pattern of memo
Page 200 and 201: ackground they had seen in the stud
Page 202 and 203: component (F(2,34) = 5.45, MSe = 0.
Page 204 and 205: Associative Memory In the associati
Page 208 and 209: longer total gaze duration on the e
Page 210 and 211: .54], nor on backgrounds of scenes
Page 212 and 213: the background when presented later
Page 214 and 215: Section 3.1. Introduction Section 3
Page 216 and 217: were then shown, preceded by a 20 s
Page 218 and 219: 2.56, p < .001, partial eta 2 = .71
Page 220 and 221: (negative, neutral, positive) and s
Page 222 and 223: object in a scene. There was no sig
Page 224 and 225: eradication of any emotional enhanc
Page 226 and 227: possible that the emotional stimuli
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Page 230 and 231: Section 3.3. Results Results of the
Page 232 and 233: Planned contrasts revealed the impa
Page 234 and 235: component (object, background) inte
Page 236 and 237: ackground of the scene. There was n
Page 238 and 239: Section 3.4. Discussion There was e
Page 240 and 241: identify with eye movement recordin
Page 242 and 243: Table 5.7. Average ratings (standar
Page 244 and 245: emotional influence on the results
Page 246 and 247: Figure 5.7. Specific and general re
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Page 250 and 251: Figure 5.9. Specific and General Re
Page 252 and 253: Section 5.3. Eye movement results T
Page 254 and 255: .01). Post-hoc Tukey’s HSD were u
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The number of fixations made on dif
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(F(1.79,5.37) = 7.12, MSe = 232535.
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emotional and neutral object [F(1,6
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Figure 5.16. Experiments 7 - 10: Av
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may be that the scenes were easier
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Chapter 6. Discussion In the final
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In chapter 4 I extended the experim
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Figure 6.3 Summary of findings from
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alternative measures of attention h
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distribution of visual attention re
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designing and conducting experiment
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contributed to the difficulty in cr
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whether these perceptual difference
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Richardson-Klavehn, 2005) with the
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High Threshold Theory (Macmillan &
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participant and the artificial prod
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References Adolphs, R. (2002). Reco
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Buchanan, T. W. (2007). Retrieval o
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Davidson, R. J. (1994). On emotion,
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Gardiner, J. M., Ramponi, C., & Ric
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James, W. (1884). What is an emotio
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Levine, L. J., & Bluck, S. (2004).
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components. Journal of Experimental
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Rowe, G., Hirsh, J. B., & Anderson,
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Talmi, D., Schimmack, U., Paterson,
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Zajonc, R. B. (1968). Attitudinal e
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Appendix 2.2. ANOVA Analyses for Ex
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Table 2.2.4. Experiment 1: Separate
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Appendix 3.2. Contamination of Retr
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Appendix 4.1 Analysis of Same, Simi
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Scene component* emotion* response
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Section 4.1.2 Analysis for Experime
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Emotion* Response type F(4,68) = 0.
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esponse F(1,17) = 0.25, New respons
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Scene component* Response type Tuke
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Same response Similar response New
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Effect ANOVA result Response type F
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Similar response New response Same
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Tukey’s post hocs: For objects Sa
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esponse F(1,17) = 1.95, Similar res
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