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a third (Nelson et al., 1996) has not, but the authors state that reliability of survey responses regarding soil ingestion may have been an issue. Further refinement of survey response methodologies, together with recent NHANES data on U.S. prevalence of positive serum antibody status regarding infection with Toxocara species, may be useful. 5.4.4 Key Studies: Representativeness of U.S. Population The two key studies of Dutch and Jamaican children may represent different conditions and different study populations than those in the U.S.; thus, it is unclear to what extent those children’s soil ingestion behaviors may differ from U.S. children’s soil ingestion behaviors. Limitations regarding the key studies performed in the U.S. for estimating soil and dust ingestion rates in the entire population of U.S. children ages 0 to < 21 years fall into the broad categories of geographic range and demographics (age, gender, race/ethnicity, socioeconomic status). Regarding geographic range, the two most obvious issues relate to soil types and climate. Soil properties might influence the soil ingestion estimates that are based on excreted tracer elements. The Davis et al. (1990), Calabrese et al. (1989)/Barnes (1990), Davis and Mirick (2006) and Calabrese et al. (1997a) tracer element studies were in locations with soils that had sand content ranging from 21-80 percent, silt content ranging from 16-71 percent, and clay content ranging from 3-20 percent by weight, based on data from USDA (2008). The location of children in the Calabrese et al. (1997b) study was not specified, but due to the original survey response study’s occurrence in western Massachusetts, the soil types in the vicinity of the Calabrese et al. (1997b) study are likely to be similar to those in the Calabrese et al. (1989)/Barnes (1990) study. The Hogan et al. (1998) study included locations in the central part of the U.S. (an area along the Kansas/Missouri border, and an area in western Illinois) and one in the eastern U.S. (Palmerton, Pennsylvania). The only key study conducted in the southern part of the U.S. was Vermeer and Frate (1979). Children might be outside and have access to soil in a very wide range of weather conditions (Wong et al., 2000). In the parts of the U.S. that experience moderate temperatures year-round, soil ingestion rates Child-Specific Exposure Factors Handbook Chapter 5 - Ingestion of Soil and Dust may be fairly evenly distributed throughout the year. During conditions of deep snow cover, extreme cold, or extreme heat, children could be expected to have minimal contact with outside soil. All children, regardless of location, could ingest soils located indoors in plant containers, or outdoor soil tracked inside buildings by human or animal building occupants. Davis et al. (1990) did not find a clear or consistent association between the number of hours spent indoors per day and soil ingestion, but reported a consistent association between spending a greater number of hours outdoors and high (defined as the uppermost tertile) soil ingestion levels across all three tracers used. The five key tracer element studies all took place in northern latitudes. The temperature and precipitation patterns that occurred during these four studies’ data collection periods was difficult to discern due to no mention of specific data collection dates in the published articles. The Calabrese et al. (1989)/Barnes (1990) study apparently took place in mid- to late September 1987 in and near Amherst, Massachusetts; Calabrese et al. (1997a) apparently took place in late September and early October 1992, in Anaconda, Montana; Davis et al. (1990) took place in July, August and September 1987, in Richland, Kennewick and Pasco, Washington; and Davis and Mirick (2006) took place in the same Washington state location in late July, August and very early September 1988 (raw data). Inferring exact data collection dates, a wide range of temperatures may have occurred during the four studies’ data collection periods (daily lows from 22-60 o F and 25-48 o F, and daily highs from 53-81 o F and 55-88 o F in Calabrese et al. (1989) and Calabrese et al. (1997a), respectively, and daily lows from 51-72 o F and 51 - 67 o F, and daily highs from 69-103 o F and 80-102 o F in Davis et al. (1990) and Davis and Mirick (2006), respectively) (National Climatic Data Center, 2008). Significant amounts of precipitation occurred during Calabrese et al. (1989) (more than 0.1 inches per 24 hour period) on several days; somewhat less precipitation was observed during Calabrese et al. (1997a); precipitation in Kennewick and Richland during the data collection periods of Davis et al. (1990) was almost nonexistent; there was no recorded precipitation in Kennewick or Richland during the data collection period for Davis and Mirick (2006) (National Climatic Data Center, 2008). The key biokinetic model comparison study (Hogan et al., 1998) targeted three locations in more southerly latitudes (Pennsylvania, southern Illinois, and Page Child-Specific Exposure Factors Handbook 5-24 September 2008
Child-Specific Exposure Factors Handbook Chapter 5 - Ingestion of Soil and Dust southern Kansas/Missouri) than the five tracer element studies. The biokinetic model comparison methodology had an advantage over the tracer element studies in that the study represented long-term environmental exposures over periods up to several years, that would include a range of seasons and climate conditions. A brief review of the representativeness of the key studies’ samples with respect to gender and age suggested that males and females were represented roughly equally in those studies for which study subjects’ gender was stated. Children up to age 8 years were studied in seven of the nine studies, with an emphasis on younger children. Wong (1988)/Calabrese et al. (1993) and Vermeer and Frate (1979) are the only studies with children 8 years or older. A brief review of the representativeness of the key studies’ samples with respect to socioeconomic status and racial/ethnic identity suggested that there were some discrepancies between the study subjects and the current U.S. population of children age 0 to
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National Center for Environmental A
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CSEFH TABLE OF CONTENTS Child-Speci
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CSEFH 5 TABLE OF CONTENTS (Continue
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CSEFH TABLE OF CONTENTS (Continued)
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CSEFH TABLE OF CONTENTS (Continued)
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CSEFH 16 TABLE OF CONTENTS (Continu
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CSEFH LIST OF TABLES Child-Specific
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CSEFH LIST OF TABLES (Continued) Ch
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CSEFH ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS Ch
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CSEFH OPP = Office of Pesticide Pro
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CSEFH EXECUTIVE SUMMARY This Child-
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CSEFH were discussed in the guideli
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CSEFH Table ES-1. Summary of Recomm
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CSEFH Youngmoo Kim, U.S. EPA, Regio
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Child-Specific Exposure Factors Han
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exposure assessor) to distinguish b
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is perhaps the most common method o
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uncertainty is high, a sensitivity
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Peretz, C.; Goldberg, P.; Kahan, E.
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Table 2-3. Approaches to Quantitati
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water ingestion is summarized. Rele
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3.3 DRINKING WATER INGESTION STUDIE
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that the three-day diary has been s
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million. In addition, whites were u
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an indicator of pool water ingestio
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Table 3-4. Per Capita a Estimates o
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Table 3-8. Per Capitaa Estimates of
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Table 3-11. Per Capita a Estimates
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Table 3-14. Consumers Onlya Estimat
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Table 3-18. Consumers Onlya Estimat
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Table 3-21. Consumers Only a Estima
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Water Ingested (mL/day) a from Wate
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Table 3-26. Plain Tap Water and Tot
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Total fluid Plain water Milk Carbon
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Tap Water Intake in Breastfed and F
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Table 3-32. Mean (± Standard Devia
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Study Group Table 3-34. Pool Water
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of specific mouthing events, expres
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Table 4-2. Confidence in Recommenda
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Age Group Birth to
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8.3 KEY BODY WEIGHT STUDY 8.3.1 U.S
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III (1966-70) for ages 12-17 years,
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8.4.9 Kahn and Stralka, 2008 - Esti
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Table 8-3. Mean and Percentile Body
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Page Child-Specific Exposure Factor
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Table 8-8. Statistics for Probabili
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Figure 8-2. Weight by Age Percentil
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Figure 8-4. Weight by Length Percen
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Figure 8-6. Body Mass Index-for-Age
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Age Group a Child-Specific Exposure
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Age Group a Child-Specific Exposure
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Source: Gestational Age (weeks) 25
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of the food consumed after the mois
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Minimal (or Defined) Bias Child-Spe
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9.3 INTAKE STUDIES The primary sour
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9.3.2 Relevant Fruit and Vegetable
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Weighted data were used in all of t
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Vegetables Any Vegetable Baby Food
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4 to 5 months 6 to 11 months 12 to
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All fruits Canned fruit Fresh fruit
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Table 9-23. Mean Moisture Content o
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eported on fish intake for children
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a Table 10-1. Recommended Values fo
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10.3 GENERAL POPULATION STUDIES 10.
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Minnesota, and North Dakota. While
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elow the value of 8 ounces most com
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into a single pooled data set is so
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as described in Section 10.6.1.2, a
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Columbia River Inter-Tribal Fish Co
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Table 10-12. Fish Consumption Among
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Table 10-18. Mean Fish Intake Among
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Table 10-23. Consumption Rates for
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Species a Anadromous fish Pelagic f
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Lingcod Mackerel, Atlantic Mackerel
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Child-Specific Exposur e Factor s H
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Total Grains 95000060 15000250 1500
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National Center for Environmental A
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