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minutes/day); 99 percent of respondents spent time at home (mean of 1,086 minutes/day for these individuals only). Tables 16-7 and 16-8 show the average time spent in the six locations grouped by age and gender, and season and region, respectively. Again, because the original source data were available, the age categories used by Wiley et al. (1991) have been replaced in Table 16-7 by the standardized age categories used in this handbook. There were relatively large differences among the age groups in time expenditure for educational settings (Table 16-7). There were small differences in time expenditure at the six locations by region, but time spent in school decreased in the summer months compared to other seasons (Table 16-8). Table 16-9 shows the average time children spent in proximity to gasoline fumes and gas oven fumes. In general, the sampled children spent more time closer to gasoline fumes than to gas oven fumes. The age categories in Table 16-9 have been modified to conform to the standardized categories used in this handbook. The U.S. EPA estimated the total time indoors and outdoors using the data from the Wiley et al. (1991) study. Activities performed indoors were assumed to include household work, child care, personal needs and care, education, and communication/passive leisure. The average times spent in these indoor activities and half the time spent in each activity which could have occurred either indoors or outdoors (i.e., work-related, goods/services, organizational activities, entertainment/social, don’t know/not coded) were summed. Table 16-10 summarizes the results of this analysis using the standard age groups. A limitation of this study is that the sampling population was restricted to only Englishspeaking households; therefore, the data obtained do not represent the diverse population group present in California. Another limitation is that time use values obtained from this survey were based on short-term recall (24-hr) data; therefore, the data set obtained may be biased. Other limitations are: the survey was conducted in California and is not representative of the national population, and the significance of the observed differences in the data obtained (i.e., gender, Child-Specific Exposure Factors Handbook Chapter 16 - Activity Factors age, seasons, and regions) were not tested statistically. An advantage of this study is that time expenditure in various activities and locations were presented for children grouped by age, gender, and season. Also, potential exposures of respondents to pollutants were explored in the survey. Another advantage is the use of the CATI program in obtaining time diaries, which allows automatic coding of activities and locations onto a computer tape, and allows activities forgotten by respondents to be inserted into their appropriate position during interviewing. 16.3.1.2 U.S. EPA, 1996 - National Human Activity Pattern Survey (NHAPS) U.S. EPA (1996) analyzed data collected by the National Human Activity Pattern Survey (NHAPS). This survey was conducted by U.S. EPA and is the largest and most current human activity pattern survey available (U.S. EPA, 1996). Data for 9,386 respondents in the 48 contiguous United States were collected via minute-by-minute 24-hour diaries. NHAPS was conducted from October 1992 through September 1994 by the University of Maryland’s Survey Research Center using CATI technology to collect 24-hour retrospective diaries and answers to a number of personal and exposure related questions from each respondent. Detailed data were collected for a maximum of 82 different possible locations, and a maximum of 91 different activities. Participants were selected using a RDD method. The response rate was 63 percent, overall. If the chosen respondent was a child too young to interview, an adult in the household gave a proxy interview. Each participant was asked to recount their entire daily routine from midnight to midnight immediately previous to the day that they were interviewed. The survey collected information on duration and frequency of selected activities and of the time spent in selected microenvironments. In addition, demographic information was collected for each respondent to allow for statistical summaries to be generated according to specific subgroups of the U.S. population (i.e., by gender, age, race, employment status, census region, season, etc.). The participants’ responses were weighted according to geographic, socioeconomic, time/season, and other demographic factors to ensure that results were representative of the Page Child-Specific Exposure Factors Handbook 16-8 September 2008
Child-Specific Exposure Factors Handbook Chapter 16 - Activity Factors U.S. population. The weighted sample matched the 1990 U.S. census population for each gender, age group, census region, and the day-of-week and seasonal responses were equally distributed. Saturdays and Sundays were over sampled to ensure an adequate weekend sample. Tables 16-11 through 16-24 provide data from the NHAPS study. In most cases, the source data from U.S. EPA have been reviewed and re-analyzed by U.S. EPA to conform to the age categories recommended in Guidance for Monitoring and Assessing Childhood Exposures to Environmental Contaminants (U.S. EPA, 2005) and used in this handbook. Because no data were available on subjects’ age in months, age groups less than 1 year old were consolidated into a single group. These tables provide statistics for 24-hour cumulative time spent (mean, minimum, percentiles, and maximum) in or in selected locations or engaging in selected activities. For each location or activity, statistics were calculated for the entire survey population (i.e., whole population) and for the subset of the survey population that reported being in the location or doing the activity in question (i.e., doers only). When the sample size was 10 persons or fewer, percentile values were not calculated. Also note that some of these activities were not necessarily mutually exclusive (e.g. time spent in active sports likely overlaps with exercise time). Table 16-11 presents data for the time children spent in various rooms of the house (i.e., kitchen, living room, dining room, bathroom, bedroom, and garage), and all rooms combined. Table 16-12 presents data for time spent in other indoor locations (i.e., restaurants, indoors at school, and grocery/convenience stores). Table 16-13 presents data for the time children spent outdoors on school grounds/playgrounds, parks or golf courses, or pool rivers, or lakes. Table 16-14 provides data on time spent in indoor and outdoor environments. The U.S. EPA estimated the time spent indoors by adding the average times spent indoors at the respondents’home (kitchen, living room, bathroom, etc.), at other houses, and inside other locations such as school, restaurants, etc. Time outdoors was estimated by adding the average time spent outdoors at the respondents’ pool and yard, others’ pool and yard, and outside other locations such as sidewalk, street, neighborhood, parking lot, service station/gas station, school grounds, park/golf course, pool, river, lake, farm, etc. Table 16 15 presents data for the time spent in various types of vehicles (i.e., car, truck/van, bus), and in all vehicles combined. Table 16-16 presents data for the time children spent in various major activity categories (i.e., sleeping, napping, eating, attending school, outdoor recreation, active sports, exercise, and walking). Table 16-17 through 16-19 provide data related to showering, bathing, and handwashing activities. Tables 16-20 and 16-21 provide data on monthly swimming (in a freshwater pool) frequency by the number of respondents and swimming duration, respectively. Table 16-22 provides data on the time children spent playing on dirt, sand/gravel, or grass, and Table 16-23 provides data on the number of minutes spent near excessive dust. Table 16-24 provides information on time spent in the presence of smokers. For this data set, the authors’ original age categories were used because the methodology used to generate the data could not be reproduced. The advantages of the NHAPS data set are that it is representative of the U.S. population and it has been adjusted to be balanced geographically, seasonally, and for day/time. Also, it is inclusive of all ages, genders, and races. A disadvantage of the study is that for the standard age categories, the number of respondents is small for the “doers” of many activities. In addition, the durations exceeding 60, 120, and 181 minutes were not collected for some activities. Therefore, the actual time spent at the high end of the distribution for these activities could not be accurately estimated. 16.3.2 RELEVANT STUDIES 16.3.2.1 Timmer et al., 1985 - How Children Use Time Timmer et al. (1985) conducted a study using the data obtained on children's time use from a 1981-1982 panel study. Data were obtained for 389 children between the ages of 3 and 17 years of age. Data were collected using a time diary and a standardized interview. The time diary involved children reporting their activities beginning at 12:00 a.m. the previous night, the duration and location of Child-Specific Exposure Factors Handbook Page September 2008 16-9
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National Center for Environmental A
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CSEFH TABLE OF CONTENTS Child-Speci
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CSEFH 5 TABLE OF CONTENTS (Continue
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CSEFH TABLE OF CONTENTS (Continued)
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CSEFH TABLE OF CONTENTS (Continued)
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CSEFH 16 TABLE OF CONTENTS (Continu
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CSEFH LIST OF TABLES Child-Specific
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CSEFH LIST OF TABLES (Continued) Ch
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CSEFH ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS Ch
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CSEFH OPP = Office of Pesticide Pro
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CSEFH EXECUTIVE SUMMARY This Child-
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CSEFH were discussed in the guideli
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CSEFH Table ES-1. Summary of Recomm
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CSEFH Youngmoo Kim, U.S. EPA, Regio
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Child-Specific Exposure Factors Han
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exposure assessor) to distinguish b
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is perhaps the most common method o
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uncertainty is high, a sensitivity
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Peretz, C.; Goldberg, P.; Kahan, E.
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Table 2-3. Approaches to Quantitati
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water ingestion is summarized. Rele
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3.3 DRINKING WATER INGESTION STUDIE
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that the three-day diary has been s
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million. In addition, whites were u
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an indicator of pool water ingestio
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Table 3-4. Per Capita a Estimates o
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Table 3-8. Per Capitaa Estimates of
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Table 3-11. Per Capita a Estimates
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Table 3-14. Consumers Onlya Estimat
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Table 3-18. Consumers Onlya Estimat
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Table 3-21. Consumers Only a Estima
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Water Ingested (mL/day) a from Wate
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Table 3-26. Plain Tap Water and Tot
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Total fluid Plain water Milk Carbon
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Tap Water Intake in Breastfed and F
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Table 3-32. Mean (± Standard Devia
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Study Group Table 3-34. Pool Water
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of specific mouthing events, expres
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Table 4-2. Confidence in Recommenda
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their children’s mouthing behavio
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to mouth activity was recorded duri
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contacts occurring during the objec
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unlikely to be representative of th
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2 to 3 days old, in a quiet, temper
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waking hours. Parents also recorded
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outdoor mouthing rates. The authors
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Activity Data of Two- to Four-Year-
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Table 4-6. Variability in Objects M
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Behavior Child-Specific Exposure Fa
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Table 4-17. Estimated Mean Daily Mo
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Age Group Birth to
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8.3 KEY BODY WEIGHT STUDY 8.3.1 U.S
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III (1966-70) for ages 12-17 years,
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8.4.9 Kahn and Stralka, 2008 - Esti
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Table 8-3. Mean and Percentile Body
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Page Child-Specific Exposure Factor
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Table 8-8. Statistics for Probabili
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Figure 8-2. Weight by Age Percentil
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Figure 8-4. Weight by Length Percen
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Figure 8-6. Body Mass Index-for-Age
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Age Group a Child-Specific Exposure
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Age Group a Child-Specific Exposure
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Source: Gestational Age (weeks) 25
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of the food consumed after the mois
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Minimal (or Defined) Bias Child-Spe
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9.3 INTAKE STUDIES The primary sour
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9.3.2 Relevant Fruit and Vegetable
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Weighted data were used in all of t
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Page Child-Specifi c Exposur e Fact
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Vegetables Any Vegetable Baby Food
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4 to 5 months 6 to 11 months 12 to
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All fruits Canned fruit Fresh fruit
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Table 9-23. Mean Moisture Content o
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eported on fish intake for children
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a Table 10-1. Recommended Values fo
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10.3 GENERAL POPULATION STUDIES 10.
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Minnesota, and North Dakota. While
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elow the value of 8 ounces most com
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into a single pooled data set is so
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as described in Section 10.6.1.2, a
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Columbia River Inter-Tribal Fish Co
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Table 10-12. Fish Consumption Among
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Table 10-18. Mean Fish Intake Among
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Table 10-23. Consumption Rates for
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Species a Anadromous fish Pelagic f
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Lingcod Mackerel, Atlantic Mackerel
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Child-Specific Exposur e Factor s H
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Total Grains 95000060 15000250 1500
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National Center for Environmental A
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