Dictionary of Evidence-based Medicine.pdf

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Dictionary of Evidence-based Medicine 63 phenomena, the paradox of thrift and the tragedy of the commons, are examples of fallacy of composition. The former relates to the observation that if one person saves a higher proportion of his wages to purchase a specific item, he will acquire that item sooner than otherwise. On the other hand, if everyone were to save more, for the economy as a whole, the absolute total amount saved could actually be less since output and hence employment would drop. As a result, there is less money to be saved. The tragedy of the commons can be illustrated by the fact that if farmers were allowed to graze their sheep on public land for free and one farmer were to increase his herd, then he would be better off. On the other hand, if every farmer were to do the same, overgrazing may follow and everybody would be worse off. False-negative ratio The false-negative ratio in diagnostic testing is the proportion of negative tests (-T) in all patients with disease (D). False-negative ratio = p(-T\D) False-positive ratio The false-positive ratio in diagnostic testing is the proportion of positive tests (+T) in patients without disease. False-positive ratio = p(+T\D) Field trial Unlike a clinical trial which deals with patients, a field trial is one which deals with individuals who have yet to develop the disease. Such trials usually involve large numbers of subjects going about their usual daily activities. Therefore, the investigators usually visit their subjects in the field (workplace, school or home). Field studies are commonly used for studying the efficacy of vaccines (Rothman KJ, Greenland S (1998) Modern epidemiology. 2nd edn. Lippincott-Raven, Philadelphia). File drawer problem The term 'file drawer problem' was first coined by Rosenthal to describe the publication bias which results from authors and editors favouring the publication of studies with positive results (Rosenthal R (1979) The 'file
64 Dictionary of Evidence-based Medicine drawer problem' and tolerance of null results. Psychological Bulletin. 86: 638^41). As a result, estimates of the efficacy of drugs based solely on data available in the public domain are often over-optimistic. To minimize such a problem, reviewers are advised to seek access to unpublished studies from likely investigators and product manufacturers. However, the latter are often reluctant to make such information available. Fiscal policy Fiscal policy is the policy adopted by a government with respect to taxes and government spending to influence its economic targets. Five-year survival rate (see under Case fatality rate) Fixed costs Fixed costs are those which remain constant when the level of output changes. For example, in the manufacture of tablets, the cost of the tabletting machine is a fixed cost as it is required whether the level of output is high or low as long as the machine's capacity is not exceeded. Floor effect (see under Ceiling effect) Focus groups Focus groups are one of the qualitative research methods based on group interviews. With this approach, a moderator poses open-ended questions to a group of participants drawn from a target population of interest. The method is widely used in marketing research, for example, to tap into what a group of primary care physicians might think about the profile of a new drug or how health education messages are likely to be perceived. Unlike one-to-one interviews, in focus groups, group dynamics can be capitalized on to clarify complex issues and unravel interaction between different factors. In the real world, individuals' perceptions are often modified and perhaps even shaped by those of their peers. Focus groups may help to explore the extent to which this is likely. In modern practice, focus groups are often conducted by professional moderators while those commissioning or undertaking the research observe, with the participants' permission, through video link-ups. The video tapes can be subject to subsequent further analysis. Additional
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Dictionary of Evidence-based Medici
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Preface This book was conceived at
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A Ability to pay Ability to pay is
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Figure I Audit: Clinical audit cycl
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B Balanced design In an experiment,
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Page 72 and 73: G Game theory Game theory, first de
Page 86 and 87: I ICD (see International Classifica
Page 94 and 95: K Keynes, John Maynard (1883-1946)
Page 100 and 101: M Macroeconomics Macroeconomics is
Page 112 and 113: N N of I trial An N of 1 trial is a
Page 116 and 117: o OBM (see Opinion-based medicine)
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Figure 25 Measuring quality of life
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S Scarcity Scarcity is often referr
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T TDM (see Therapeutic drug monitor
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u Unique value effect This term is
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Z Z variate A random variable which
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