Brainâ€“Computer Interfaces - Index of

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Toward Ubiquitous BCIs 381 may downplay the risks if they care enough about the potential benefits. The drive to win a high-profile game competition could crack a gamer’s soul and skull like some athletes turn to steroids or doping. Privacy is a major concern that will keep growing as BCIs become both more common and more capable. BCI use may leave a trail of EEG data that could be mined to reveal more information than the user intended. As BCIs become more common, people may grow more casual about sending or storing data. BCIs currently lack the capability to reveal anything too insidious, but this is beginning to change. Companies like BrainwaveScience and NoLieMRI are working on lie detection tools based on EEG or fMRI. Systems that analyze mood, fatigue, medication or illegal drugs, or other characteristics could have therapeutic applications, but could also be misused. Liability issues will arise in a BCI-enabled society. If future BCIs could interpret thoughts more quickly than we consciously realize them, or send commands that have not been thoroughly considered, who is responsible? What about the “Midas touch” problem [49], in which a user might send an unintended command? What about systems that write to the brain – who is liable for resulting actions? The privacy concern is more serious than liability right now, and both concerns can be addressed through comparisons to other recent technologies. Regarding privacy, regulations and standards must be established, with an informed and effective enforcement entity, to ensure that people’s brain activity will be kept confidential and will only be used as the user intended. This is not so different from rules regarding cell phone transmissions, data sent online, research data, or medical files. These protections are not perfect, and some burden remains on the end user to avoid sending potentially damaging information with inadequate protection or through unscrupulous software or businesses. Many people today send credit card information through public internet terminals, loudly announce it in public places, or leave written copies. And just as many people have software to prevent popups, viruses, cookies, and sniffing, future software might somehow limit or screen any brain imagery used in a BCI to maintain privacy, prevent overly alluring “think here” links, or warn of inadvisable downloads or other software. Liability is a more distant concern. People cannot really use BCIs for critical decisions now, and BCIs remain so slow that any messages sent must be deliberate. Computer-to-brain interfaces (CBIs) that write to the brain are currently used for helping with vision, hearing, or movement restoration, and not so much changing what you think. Liability issues should also be addressed via current perspectives. In general, the user is responsible for any messages that are sent. Typing errors are the user’s fault, and the best way to avoid significant problems is to make sure that any major decision must be verified. A related issue is liability for side effects. Many BCIs train the user’s brain. Systems designed to treat disorders rely on such training to produce positive changes in the brain. Dobkin [24] suggests possible negative side effects such as a facial tic, unwanted thoughts, or perceptual distortions. Negative side effects have never been reported, even in people who have used BCIs for years.
382 B.Z. Allison Liability concerns will also require effective regulation, clinical trials, and an enforcement infrastructure. Commercial entities need to take strong measures to avoid prematurely introducing BCIs. Scandals with medications that turned out to have harmful side effects are expensive as well as unethical. The final ethical concern is with societal side effects. What are the negative implications of a BCI-enabled society? Could people become too dependent on BCIs, and unable to address realworld problems? Greater BCI ubiquity implies decreased connection to the physical world and all its perceived burdens – work, pain, mud, commuting, getting stuck in the rain. Who would fardels bear, to grunt and sweat under a weary life, when he himself might his quietus make with a bare BCI? Would the convenience of ubiquitous BCIs ultimately make us not just physically but creatively lazy? If Shakespeare could write with a BCI, would he produce anything wittier than in-game taunts after splattering Marlowe with a plasma gun? This everpresent ethical elephant in BCI research has been addressed much better by science fiction than the professional research community. I am aware of no journal publication, conference poster, or talk from any BCI researcher that addresses this – indeed, alarmists in the media even deserve more credit for addressing this issue, albeit with unresearched Chicken Little handwaving. Work has shown that reduced physical activity produces depression, and that mental and social challenges are important for alertness and problemsolving [39, 42]. Does this relate to BCIs? This ethical concern depends on a related question: how much can BCIs reduce our dependence on the external world, compared to other technologies? In the near future, BCIs could not really foster sloth much more than other technologies and applications that already do so, such as an addictive TV series or computer game. This stems from the fundamental problem of BCIs today: they cannot really allow you to do something you could not do with another means of communication or control. Many people today choose to master keyboards, mice, and telephones to buy clothes or food, rather than learning to sew, hunt, or farm. Since a modern BCI requires more trouble than a conventional interface, a user who tried to order a new sweater or pizza through a BCI would end up doing more work than someone who uses conventional tools to accomplish the same goal. Further in the future, BCIs could contribute heavily to unhealthy mental and physical sloth. Ultimately, BCIs may reduce or eliminate dependence not only on physical activity, but some cognitive activity. Marr [43] argues that problem solving involves three components: computational (identifying the problem); algorithmic (how to address the problem); and implementational (how to enact the solution). Modern BCIs, like television remote controls, simplify the last two stages. Very distant BCIs might eliminate at least these two stages: the user need only ponder a need, and it is (or seems) sated. Such an advanced system would indeed change human thinking in ways that external tools such as remote controls cannot. The current BCI research community could be compared to quantum physicists in the early part of the 20th century. Both groups had a core of motivated, interconnected people, genuinely fascinated by colleagues’ progress and convinced they’re contributing to the birth of something huge. We also have mindrending ethical dilemmas with the implications of our work. The problem is even greater with us. The worst quantum
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THE FRONTIERS COLLECTION
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Bernhard Graimann · Brendan Alliso
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Preface It’s an exciting time to
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Contents Brain-Computer Interfaces:
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Contributors Brendan Allison Instit
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Contributors xi Femke Nijboer Insti
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List of Abbreviations ADHD Attentio
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Brain-Computer Interfaces: A Gentle
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30 J.R. Wolpaw and C.B. Boulay by b
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32 J.R. Wolpaw and C.B. Boulay 2 Br
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34 J.R. Wolpaw and C.B. Boulay Fig.
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36 J.R. Wolpaw and C.B. Boulay Sens
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38 J.R. Wolpaw and C.B. Boulay pote
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40 J.R. Wolpaw and C.B. Boulay EEG-
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42 J.R. Wolpaw and C.B. Boulay 29.
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48 G. Pfurtscheller and C. Neuper F
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52 G. Pfurtscheller and C. Neuper r
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54 G. Pfurtscheller and C. Neuper 6
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56 G. Pfurtscheller and C. Neuper B
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66 C. Neuper and G. Pfurtscheller s
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68 C. Neuper and G. Pfurtscheller 2
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72 C. Neuper and G. Pfurtscheller b
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74 C. Neuper and G. Pfurtscheller E
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80 G. Pfurtscheller et al. mode, th
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82 G. Pfurtscheller et al. Therefor
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84 G. Pfurtscheller et al. A B C 1
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86 G. Pfurtscheller et al. filters
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88 G. Pfurtscheller et al. differen
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90 G. Pfurtscheller et al. In this
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92 G. Pfurtscheller et al. Fig. 8 P
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94 G. Pfurtscheller et al. 10. D. F
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96 G. Pfurtscheller et al. 51. G. P
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98 E.W. Sellers et al. Fig. 1 Three
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100 E.W. Sellers et al. Fig. 3 Two-
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102 E.W. Sellers et al. Fig. 5 Comp
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104 E.W. Sellers et al. Fig. 7 Mont
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106 E.W. Sellers et al. fixation wa
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108 E.W. Sellers et al. 5 SMR-Based
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110 E.W. Sellers et al. 22. D.J Kru
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Detecting Mental States by Machine
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138 Y. Wang et al. which has been e
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140 Y. Wang et al. After many studi
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142 Y. Wang et al. Left Hand Right
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144 Y. Wang et al. 0-degree 60-degr
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146 Y. Wang et al. 3.1.2 Stimulatio
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148 Y. Wang et al. Foot 1 0.5 Left
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150 Y. Wang et al. be summarized as
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152 Y. Wang et al. Fig. 10 A player
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154 Y. Wang et al. 22. Y. Wang, R.
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156 N. Birbaumer and P. Sauseng C A
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158 N. Birbaumer and P. Sauseng 3 B
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160 N. Birbaumer and P. Sauseng pat
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162 N. Birbaumer and P. Sauseng Fig
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164 N. Birbaumer and P. Sauseng of
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166 N. Birbaumer and P. Sauseng Neu
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168 N. Birbaumer and P. Sauseng 8.
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Non Invasive BCIs for Neuroprosthes
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Brain-Computer Interfaces for Commu
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204 D.M. Taylor and M.E. Stetner mo
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208 D.M. Taylor and M.E. Stetner ac
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216 D.M. Taylor and M.E. Stetner ev
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218 D.M. Taylor and M.E. Stetner fo
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BCIs Based on Signals from Between
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242 K.J. Miller and J.G. Ojemann 2
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246 K.J. Miller and J.G. Ojemann Fi
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254 K.J. Miller and J.G. Ojemann In
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256 K.J. Miller and J.G. Ojemann ar
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258 K.J. Miller and J.G. Ojemann 26
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260 J. Mellinger and G. Schalk mapp
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262 J. Mellinger and G. Schalk 2 BC
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264 J. Mellinger and G. Schalk Fig.
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266 J. Mellinger and G. Schalk Filt
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268 J. Mellinger and G. Schalk proc
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270 J. Mellinger and G. Schalk exis
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272 J. Mellinger and G. Schalk reco
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274 J. Mellinger and G. Schalk Fig.
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276 J. Mellinger and G. Schalk numb
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278 J. Mellinger and G. Schalk 5. A
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The First Commercial Brain-Computer
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306 Y. Li et al. Fig. 1 Basic desig
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308 Y. Li et al. Fig. 2 A linear tr
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310 Y. Li et al. The large Laplacia
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312 Y. Li et al. components is larg
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314 Y. Li et al. P300-based, and ER
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316 Y. Li et al. 3.3.2 Autoregressi
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318 Y. Li et al. selection as follo
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320 Y. Li et al. 5.1.2 Support Vect
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322 Y. Li et al. is small and the n
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324 Y. Li et al. (ROC) analysis app
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326 Y. Li et al. Fig. 10 The stimul
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328 Y. Li et al. 6. M. Cheng, X. Ga
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Page 362 and 363: Toward Ubiquitous BCIs Brendan Z. A
Page 364 and 365: Toward Ubiquitous BCIs 359 BCI Chal
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Page 368 and 369: Toward Ubiquitous BCIs 363 facial m
Page 370 and 371: Toward Ubiquitous BCIs 365 The best
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Page 388 and 389: Toward Ubiquitous BCIs 383 physicis
Page 390 and 391: Toward Ubiquitous BCIs 385 31. F.H.
Page 392 and 393: Toward Ubiquitous BCIs 387 67. G. S
Page 394 and 395: 390 Index 65, 157, 163, 217, 221-23
Page 396 and 397: 392 Index 208, 236, 243, 245, 260-2
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