Clinical Textbook of Addictive Disorders 3rd ed - R. Frances, S. Miller, A. Mack (Guilford, 2005) WW

2. Historical and Social Context 21Columbian era, sporadic cases of acute and chronic substance abuse problemshad been known for at least a millennium, and probably longer. However, relativelysudden, massive substance abuse increases appeared early in the post-Columbian era. One of these was the English gin epidemic or gin plague(Thurn, 1978), which began in the late 1600s and continued for severaldecades. Transatlantic intercontinental trade and the beginnings of the IndustrialRevolution were the immediate causes. At about the same time, opiumepidemics broke out in several Asian countries. The origins of these epidemicswere somewhat different. The post-Columbian spread of tobacco smoking toAsia introduced the inhabitants to inhalation as a new mode of drug administration.This new route of administration applied to an old drug, opium, produceda combination more addictive than the old opium-eating tradition. Governmentalpressures against tobacco smoking (which was viewed as wastefuland associated with seditious elements) probably accelerated the popularity ofopium smoking. Subsequently, European colonialism and international tradecontributed to the import of Indian opium to several East Asian countries.Opium epidemics also occurred somewhat later in Europe and North America(Kramer, 1979). Although East Asian countries have largely controlled theiropium problems, opiate endemics continue in Southeast and South Asia, theMiddle East, parts of Europe, and North America.HISTORICAL MODELS OF SUBSTANCE USEAlthough ceremonial alcohol use is widely appreciated, the ceremonial use ofdrugs is not so well known. Peyote buttons are a sacramental substance in theNative American Church (Bergman, 1971). Hallucinogen use for religious purposesstill occurs among many South American ethnic groups (DuToit, 1977).Supernatural sanctions, both prescribing use within certain bounds and proscribinguse outside these bounds, inveigh against abuse of these substances bydevotees. Thus, ceremonial or religious use tends to be relatively safe. Examplesof abuse do occur, however, such as the occasional Catholic priest who becomesalcoholic, beginning with abuse of sacramental wine.Secular but social use of alcohol and drugs occurs in numerous quasi-ritualcontexts. Drinking may occur at annual events, such as New Year or harvestceremonies (e.g., Thanksgiving in the United States). Weddings, births, funerals,and other family rituals are occasions for alcohol or drug use in many cultures.Marking of friendships, business arrangements, or intergroup competitionscan virtually require substance use in some groups. For example, thedutsen in German-speaking Central Europe is a brief ritual in which friends orassociates agree to address each other by the informal du (“thou”) rather thanby the formal Sie (“you”). Participants, holding an alcoholic beverage in theirright hands, link their right arms, toast each other, and drink with arms linked.