multipurpose tree species research for small farms: strategies ... - part

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Review of FSR Approach and Methods The generalized approach to FSR is described in Figure 1. This approach is similar to many advocated for agroforestry research and development (Raintree 1987). While the approach may not have changed since the early days of FSR, there has been a considerable degree of development and refinement of individual procedures and methods, Diagnosis Many early FSR projects regarded site description as the first of a sequence of steps. They gathered as much information about the target area as possible, using comprehensive surveys. Only subjects that had been previously identified could be included, and attempts to cover all possible subjects and problems led to impossibly long questionnaires. This exercise was often delegated to a particular sub-group of the FSR team, usually economists, and carried out by specially hired enumerators. The technical scientists often did not contribute to, or benefit from the diagnosis, and ended up working on familiar topics such as variety aad fertilizer testing. Chambers (1983) eloquently summarized the practical results of such extensive surveys: ...material remains unprocessed, or if processed, unanalyzcd, or if analyzed, not written up, or if written up, not read, or if read, not remembered, or if remembered, not used or acted upon. These problems led to a greater emphasis on rapid rural appraisal (RRA) methods, where a small interdisciplinary group of researchers would talk to farmers, progressivw farmers and key individuals without a predetermined questionnaire (Collinson 1981). Concepts and ideas were taken from ecology, which helped to identify and diagram relationships between farm enterprises, farms and communities (Hart 1981; Conway i986). When broad problems were identified with a RRA approach, smaller, more directed surveys could then be designed to obtain more focused information on particular constraints, In spite of its apparent simplicity, the informal survey can vary in terms of success or uzefulness. Talking and listening to farmers is not easy. Scientists may come from a different community, speak a different language and may not be trained to interact with people. Researchers also have preferences of visiting near roads, in dry seasons, 156 with male farmers, with the better off, and biases to their discipline or more prestigious commodities (Chambers 1983). Even agricultural researchers trained in FSR methods may not see the trees on farms they visit -- they are simply invisible to them (Raintree 1987). Techniques of rapid rural appraisal became the subject of great interest and several specialized workshops, ie. Khon Kaen (1987). Ultimately, the only way to improve RRA skills is to practice, which means that it needs to become a routine method, rather than an occasional activity supported by external agencies or advisors. Diagnosis does not just involve surveys, either formal or informal. Fied experiments designed to explore the causes of productivity problems (exploratory trials) have been a common feature of FSR programs (Winkleman and Moscardi 1981). The first stage of experimentation or observational trials described by Huxley (1987), to explore a situation rather than confirm a hypothesis, is similar to the focus of agroforestry research. He also described a number of systematic procedures that are especially useful in agroforestry. Diagnostic methods have therefore evolved considerably from the site descriptions of many early FSR projects. Many farming systems researchers probably started out with the idea described by Raintree (1987), believing that there was a single optimal procedure that would be perfected through experience. Instead, practitioners increasingly blend the best and most appropriate of an array of different techniques, depending on the circumstances. The diagnosis and design rocedures developed by the InternationalCouncil for Research in Agroforestry (ICRAF) demonstrate an increasing portfolio of procedural variations to be used depending on the scale of the field situation (village, watershed, or region), while maintaining and simplifying the underlying concepts (Raintree 1987). Diagnosis has been increasingly recognized as an iterative process, rather than a first step in a sequential process, done once and then forgotten. Continuous diagnostic work is planned on the basis of the results of each cycle of activities and serves to constantly focus research and extension efforts (Raintree 1987; Tripp and Woolley 1987).
Planning Diagnosis is only useful if translated into a plan of action. Reliance on subjective opinion to determine research or extension priorities does not naturally lead to such a plan. Researchers tend to accord priority to those problem areas with which they are familiar. Without an objective means of ranking, the obvious problem, such as a large insect chewing its way through maize leaves, is accorded more importance than a less noticeable but more serious problem, such as soil erosion and long term loss of fertility. It is often not clear whether problems require research or extension. Tripp and Woolley (1987) have recently developed a more detailed planning procedure, Their method, adaptcd slightly, involves scoring and ranking problems on the basis of: - the loss in productivity (%) either at present or likely in the future; - the importance of the enterprise (crop or livestock) to individual farmers (area or number per farm, value, food security); - frequency of occurrence; and - number of farmers affected, Solutions to these problems can then be prioritized on the basis of potential benefit -productivity, stability, sustainability, equitability; and ease of adoption -- compatibility with farming system, complexity, amount of inputs/credit needed. The confidence which researchers and extensionists have in the problems and proposed solutions should then determine the appropriate form of action (Figure 1). If the problem is not clearly defined, more diagnostic work needs to be done. If the best solution to the problem is not obvious, research needs to be carried out to evaluate a number of hypothes :ed options. If there is agreement about the best solution, but experience with implementation is lacking, verification of the technology is needed. If there is confidence that the technology is suitable for farmers, then time and money should not be wasted with research -- the technology should be implemented. Searching for possible solutions is heavily dependent on experience, and can not simply be taught. As Huxley (1987) stated in relation to agroforestry, it should be clear what is already known and what is not. Unfortunately, in practice this is not always the case, and a considerable 157 degree of repetitive research is carried out. Sources of solutions include the literature, practices in other areas, practices on progressive farms, and work at other institutes and projects. Access to literature may be difficult, and much literature may be in a different language. Newsletters in dsimpler format can help, and computerized data bases and synthesizing models offer potential for the future. Technology testing Theory Much of the early FSR work involved developing and testing technology for annual crops. A sequence of e:periment typ s and designs led progressively from small-plot experiments on a few farms, emphasizing the evaluation of biological productivity, to larger plots on additional farms where econormic returns and farmer acceptance were evaluated (Collinson 1987). Component technology trials determine the optimum type or level of an input (variety, fertilizer, or plant arrangement). This is the testing stage in Figure 1. Typically, component technology trials use randomized, compl ete block e~perimental designs, with plot sizes of 10-50m " and results evaluated by an analysis of variance of yields. Component technology trials lead to a package of recommendations. Trials to compare the economic benefit of this new technology are often called verification trials. These triaLs often consist of two treatments: improved vs. farmer-planted in plots of 250-1,000m . Farmers are responsible for carrying out the operations after appropriate demonstrations. The number of farmers included in such trials has varied, with suggestions ranging from 6 (Zandstra et al. 1981) to at least 30 (FSSP 1987), probably due to the degree of uniformity of farm conditions familiar to the researchers. Analysis of the verification trial results has usually stressed a comparison of production, economic return, and variability of these across the sample (Hildebrand and Poey 1985). The need for on-farm testing of the economic and social benefits to livestock technology, compared'to further documentation of biological effects, has been increasingly stressed (Devendra 1987). Similar to crop research, the ideal approach has been stated as a progression
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Proceedings of an International Con
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MULTIPURPOSE TREE SPECIES RESEARCH
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Session 3: Determining Extension, I
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Preface While a great deal of inter
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Participants of the conference, lad
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The establishment and continued gro
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Session 1: Determining End Uses, De
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preliminary studies. Cross-cultural
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farm and village forestry practices
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group. A village in Thailand or Nep
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fit within the structure of each of
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There is a growing literature on vi
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A. heterophyla isplanted in homegar
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Data Analysis The results of an exe
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Table 1. Dependency test between ho
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Survey and Participant Observation
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used the participant observation me
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needs to stay in the village for an
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A Descriptive Research Method to Es
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Important external data sources for
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Although a discussion of statistica
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demanded by consumers and the payme
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Table 2. Components and goals of th
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through a form of informal collusiv
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Information about the current envir
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importance to Sri Lankan society as
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Table 1. Major aspects considered i
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Table 2. Common perennial species.
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able to purchase basic inputs. Duri
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Session 2: Evaluating the Supply of
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The status of fuelwood utilization
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consume 184,990m 3 of fuclwood per
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References Boonyavechewin, S. and B
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loan, the decision is based on the
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subsidizes poor farmers. The govern
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Table 1. Components and expected ou
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traditional and simple with few exc
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levels. Education curricula should
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Session 3: Determining Extension, I
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or from scientific analysis of such
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Similarly, in another country, tria
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aiming at commercial markets. The t
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Multipurpose Tree Species in Agrofo
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Table 2. Number of fruit trees plan
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Research should be designed to impr
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The majority of farmers can not aff
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and worked with them in both projec
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Timber is needed by most of the far
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home. In Maharashtra State, several
Page 99 and 100: Methodologies are reviewed for anal
Page 101 and 102: Development (NERAD) Project is an a
Page 103 and 104: small-scale charcoal manufacturing.
Page 105 and 106: Table 1. Hypothetical logit test re
Page 107 and 108: hectare of cultivated land requires
Page 109 and 110: The farmers' choice of species lead
Page 111 and 112: References Abell, T.M.B. 1981. Fucl
Page 113 and 114: Session 4: Orienting Research Effor
Page 115 and 116: Research mus. concentrate on these
Page 117 and 118: esearch scientists. Many crop and f
Page 119 and 120: Improving the Effectiveness of Mult
Page 121 and 122: western half of Timor. It is the po
Page 123 and 124: crops will result in less land bein
Page 125 and 126: compete with the tree crop in the f
Page 127 and 128: Small Farm Multipurpose Tree Specie
Page 129 and 130: The usual solution is to pilot test
Page 131 and 132: The CENRO offices which are scatter
Page 133 and 134: problem and begin work on a solutti
Page 135 and 136: and industrial levels, as well as s
Page 137 and 138: agicultural crops. Many of these ga
Page 139 and 140: woodlot and grow cassava using a cr
Page 141 and 142: local interest in the wo.-k on MPTS
Page 143 and 144: Tree improvemqnt efforts by forest
Page 145 and 146: the mother trees for their homegard
Page 147 and 148: Table 2. General steps required to
Page 149: Applying Fanning Systems Research C
Page 153 and 154: approach that is already known abou
Page 155 and 156: Research Plans and Metotls Based on
Page 157 and 158: leaves make good fertilizer, althou
Page 159 and 160: Ref.rences Amir, P., R.C. Hawkins a
Page 161 and 162: The growing importance of small-sca
Page 163 and 164: taking into account possible effect
Page 165 and 166: Poster Session Presentations / /
Page 167 and 168: planned bulletiii. are provided, bu
Page 169 and 170: L. leucocephala is the most well kn
Page 171 and 172: Table 4. Probability significance (
Page 173 and 174: Recently, systematic research on im
Page 175 and 176: Table 2. Annual Paulownia exports,
Page 177 and 178: Forest policy formulated in India u
Page 179 and 180: vigorously, reaching the pre-thinne
Page 181 and 182: Table 1. List of species for degrad
Page 183 and 184: Table 3. Productivity potential of
Page 185 and 186: candidate must withstand certain ed
Page 187 and 188: arising from the fact that at the f
Page 189 and 190: Table 1. Soil properties from the e
Page 191 and 192: Table 5. Analysis of variance of Si
Page 193 and 194: Capsule Method of Cultivation in Se
Page 195 and 196: Table 2. Comparison of average stem
Page 197 and 198: Table 1. Area and species planted i
Page 199 and 200: Table 4. P.falcataria related enter
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The Marketing System The marketing
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The field trip, organized by the Fo
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213 213 em
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Participants Marian delos Angeles S
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Syed Zahir Sadeque AST/CIDA House 6
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