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ENVIRONMENTAL EXPOSURE ASSESSMENT The operation and construction of landfills varies throughout the EU. Even within individual Member States different types of landfills exist. Representative data on EU level are not yet available. Emission control measures and emission rates change over the three principal life stages of a landfill: filling (e.g. 2 years), active metabolism (e.g. 25 years), passive stage but still functioning emission control (e.g. 30 years). Organic landfills and inorganic landfills (e.g. for construction waste) largely differ from each other, with regard to the relevance of gas as a transport medium and the adsorptive capacity of the landfilled material. After the technical lifetime of the landfill (e.g. about 60 years) a low but long lasting flow of non-degraded substances into the environment will take place. The main routes of emissions of substances from landfills are identified as leaching with water, transport with landfill gas, and diffusion to the atmosphere. The most important route of emission depends on the properties of the substance. Most metals will for example almost exclusively leave the landfill with the leachate whereas transport with landfill gas may be important for some organic substances. For organic substances the emissions will be highly influenced by the degree of degradation of the substance in the landfill and information on the anaerobic degradability is needed. Such information may in many cases be obtained from simple screening or laboratory tests. In utilising such data, however, it is important to note that environmental conditions in landfills may very well differ from conditions in these simple tests. If results from tests at more realistic conditions are available they should be used. Landfill leachates may be treated in a sewage treatment plant and the risk from the substance to the STP microorganisms may need to be assessed on a case-by-case basis. In general measured long-term emission data of sufficient analytical quality and knowledge of chemical composition of the landfilled waste are lacking. Therefore, the expected fate of a substance going into a landfill is largely based on modelling. Examples of such models can be found in Van der Poel (1999) and Danish EPA (2001). Sensitivity analysis of such models provides useful insight in landfill emission patterns depending on substance properties and assumptions on landfill management practices. Substances with different properties may reach their maximum emission rates at different time of the landfill lifecycle. An example of a sensitivity analysis with respect to substance properties is described in Danish EPA (2001) for the landfill chemical fate model MOCLA. This analysis on non-degradable substances indicates: • at which point in time the maximum emission (flux) may occur (e.g. at the end of active phase); • what fraction of the input that may be emitted with gas or leachate (e.g. less that 0.1% to more than 10% of annual input); • how the emission rate may be influenced by a low carbon content in the landfill, the absence of a bottom liner or absence of active gas collection. Separation of waste components and recovery Pre-treatment is often carried out after collection of articles or chemical products at the end of their service life, to separate valuable waste compounds from compounds to be finally disposed of. If such treatment steps are carried out as an integrated element in processing and use, the 68
ENVIRONMENTAL EXPOSURE ASSESSMENT emission should be assessed in life-cycle stage 3 (industrial/professional use, e.g. paper production or photographic processing, metal production in secondary smelters). If, however, separation and recovery is carried out in specific types of installations it may be necessary to characterise the emission from this stage of the life-cycle. Certain types of such installations have a wide-spread occurrence in Europe and may contribute with a relevant share of emission, e.g.: i) mechanical extraction of metal scrap from old vehicles or electric household equipment, ii) chemical-physical treatment of spent processing fluids from metal processing (e.g. cutting fluids, electroplating fluids) and iii) thermal treatment to remove organic components from metals or mineral fractions (e.g. cement kilns). Whether or not the emission from such recovery operations (including pre-treatment) would contribute with relevant emissions must be evaluated on a case-by-case basis. 2.3.8 Calculation of PECs In this section, the following parameters are derived: • local PECs for all environmental compartments; • regional PECs for all environmental compartments. 2.3.8.1 Introduction In the following sections guidance is given for the calculation of the PEClocal for each compartment. In Section 2.3.8.7, the calculation of regional steady-state concentrations (PECregional) in each compartment is presented. Table 10 presents an overview of the PECs that need to be estimated. In defining the standard environments a number of assumptions have to be made with respect to scale and time. These are summarised briefly here. More detail is given in the relevant sections. • the concentration in surface water (PEClocalwater) is in principle calculated after complete mixing of the effluent outfall. Because of the short time between effluent discharge and exposure location, dilution will usually be the dominant “removal” process. Therefore, degradation in surface waters, volatilisation from the water body, and sedimentation are not normally taken into account as removal processes. A standard dilution factor is used. To allow for sorption, a correction is made to take account of the fraction of substance that is adsorbed to suspended matter. The resulting dissolved concentration is used for comparison with PNECwater (Section 2.3.8.3). The concentration in sediment is calculated at the same location. For exposure of aquatic organisms, having a relatively short lifespan, the concentration during an emission episode is calculated. For indirect exposure of humans and predatory birds and mammals, annual averages are used, being more appropriate with respect to chronic exposure; • the concentration in soil (PEClocalsoil) is calculated as an average concentration over a certain time-period in agricultural soil, fertilised with sludge from a STP and receiving continuous aerial deposition from a nearby point source (Section 2.3.8.5) (production/processing site and STP aeration tank). Two different soil types are distinguished: arable land and grassland, which differ in the amount of sludge applied, and the mixing depth. For the terrestrial ecosystem, the concentration is averaged over 30 days, for human indirect exposure a period of 180 days is used. The concentration in groundwater is calculated below this agricultural area; 69
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Institute for Health and Consumer P
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LEGAL NOTICE Neither the European C
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OVERVIEW This Technical Guidance Do
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CONTENTS 1 GENERAL INTRODUCTION ...
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4.2.3.4 Use of biodegradation scree
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1 GENERAL INTRODUCTION 1.1 BACKGROU
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GENERAL INTRODUCTION countries in t
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GENERAL INTRODUCTION PNEC is regard
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2 ENVIRONMENTAL EXPOSURE ASSESSMENT
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ENVIRONMENTAL EXPOSURE ASSESSMENT r
Page 25 and 26: 2.2 MEASURED DATA ENVIRONMENTAL EXP
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Page 35 and 36: Production ENVIRONMENTAL EXPOSURE A
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Page 43 and 44: Explanation of symbols ENVIRONMENTA
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Page 61 and 62: constant of zero. However, if it ca
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Page 79 and 80: Table 10 Overview of different expo
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Page 87 and 88: Guidance for calculating PEClocal i
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Page 93 and 94: Calculation of PEClocalsoil For soi
Page 95 and 96: ENVIRONMENTAL EXPOSURE ASSESSMENT
Page 99 and 100: Output ENVIRONMENTAL EXPOSURE ASSES
Page 101 and 102: 3 EFFECTS ASSESSMENT 3.1 INTRODUCTI
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Page 109 and 110: Table 16 Assessment factors to deri
Page 111 and 112: Input data EFFECTS ASSESSMENT The m
Page 113 and 114: Estimation of the PNEC The PNEC is
Page 115 and 116: EFFECTS ASSESSMENT biodegradability
Page 117 and 118: Table 17 Test systems for derivatio
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3.7 EFFECTS ASSESSMENT FOR THE AIR
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EFFECTS ASSESSMENT procedure availa
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EFFECTS ASSESSMENT bioaccumulation
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EFFECTS ASSESSMENT For some chemica
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EFFECTS ASSESSMENT i.e. without enh
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Conversion factors for laboratory a
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EFFECTS ASSESSMENT • relative sen
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EFFECTS ASSESSMENT Earthworms are a
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MARINE RISK ASSESSMENT environment
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MARINE RISK ASSESSMENT of equal rel
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4.2.3.3 Marine biodegradation simul
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MARINE RISK ASSESSMENT In addition
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Explanation of symbols MARINE RISK
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MARINE RISK ASSESSMENT evaluate the
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MARINE RISK ASSESSMENT marine water
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MARINE RISK ASSESSMENT The addition
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MARINE RISK ASSESSMENT Statistical
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MARINE RISK ASSESSMENT sediment, fo
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Table 27 Assessment factors for der
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Table 28 continued Acute and chroni
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MARINE RISK ASSESSMENT of different
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MARINE RISK ASSESSMENT • a measur
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MARINE RISK ASSESSMENT b. the conce
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MARINE RISK ASSESSMENT mechanisms s
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MARINE RISK ASSESSMENT The use of t
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4.4.4.2 Assessment of measured BCF
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MARINE RISK ASSESSMENT required to
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Table 33 Overview of PEC/PNEC ratio
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RISK CHARACTERISATION If a refineme
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Classified dangerous to the Environ
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RISK CHARACTERISATION eaters. This
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6 TESTING STRATEGIES 6.1 INTRODUCTI
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TESTING STRATEGIES Performance of a
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TESTING STRATEGIES Care must be tak
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Algal testing Algae toxicity test (
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TESTING STRATEGIES • long-term te
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Microbial assays TESTING STRATEGIES
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TESTING STRATEGIES A soil bioassay
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REFERENCES Brandes LJ, den Hollande
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REFERENCES IPCS (2000). Framework f
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REFERENCES OECD (1984f). Activated
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REFERENCES Pack S. (1993). A review
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REFERENCES US EPA (1996). Whole Sed
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APPENDIX I volume imported in the E
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APPENDIX I MC IV “Wide dispersive
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APPENDIX I 210 Stage Main category
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APPENDIX I the number of days over
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APPENDIX I Stage Main category Ia I
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APPENDIX I manufacturing of motor c
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APPENDIX I 1. extension of the tabl
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APPENDIX I 220 A-tables Estimates f
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APPENDIX I PRIVATE USE Not applicab
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APPENDIX I IC = 3: CHEMICAL INDUSTR
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APPENDIX I IC = 5: PERSONAL /DOMEST
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APPENDIX I Table A4.1 continued Com
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APPENDIX I IC = 7: LEATHER PROCESSI
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APPENDIX I IC = 9: MINERAL OIL AND
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APPENDIX I WASTE TREATMENT Table A5
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APPENDIX I For the emission factors
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APPENDIX I INDUSTRIAL USE Table A3.
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APPENDIX I INDUSTRIAL USE Table A3.
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APPENDIX I PRIVATE USE Table A4.5 C
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APPENDIX I PRIVATE USE Table A3.16
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APPENDIX I 246 B-tables Estimates f
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APPENDIX I FORMULATION Table B2.2 f
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APPENDIX I IC = 3: CHEMICAL INDUSTR
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APPENDIX I IC = 5: PERSONAL/DOMESTI
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APPENDIX I IC = 7: LEATHER PROCESSI
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APPENDIX I IC = 9: MINERAL OIL AND
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APPENDIX I IC = 11: POLYMERS INDUST
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APPENDIX I IC =13: TEXTILE PROCESSI
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APPENDIX I IC = 16: ENGINEERING IND
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APPENDIX I Appendix I-a: List of sy
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APPENDIX I No. Use Category No. Fun
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APPENDIX I Appendix I-b: List of sy
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APPENDIX I 290 Organic intermediate
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APPENDIX I Other IC/UC combinations
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APPENDIX II Appendix II Fate of che
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APPENDIX II b) Inherent biodegradab
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APPENDIX II log H % removal -4 -3 -
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APPENDIX III Appendix III Evaluatio
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APPENDIX III Field studies In gener
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APPENDIX IV together the mentioned
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290 Table 1 Selected soil test meth
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292 Table 1 continued Selected soil
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298 Table 1 Selected freshwater sed
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APPENDIX VII Appendix VII Toxicity
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APPENDIX VIII collection), and that
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APPENDIX VIII chemicals (see Sectio
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APPENDIX VIII Multimedia fate model
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APPENDIX VIII Monitoring data Metal
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APPENDIX VIII homeostatic regulatio
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APPENDIX IX based on the proportion
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APPENDIX IX Definition of “blocks
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APPENDIX IX these “blocks” will
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APPENDIX IX and PNECs for the “bl
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APPENDIX XI Appendix XI Environment
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APPENDIX XII Appendix XII Connectio
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APPENDIX XII +40% compared to 1992.
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APPENDIX XIII other substance is be
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APPENDIX XIV Taxonomic group No. of
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